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ANTIQUITIES 



OF THE 



SOUTHERN INDIANS, 



PAETICrLAELY OF 1HE 



GEORGIA TRIBES. 



BY , 

CHARLES C. JONES, Jn. 




NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

519 & 551 BROADWAY. 
1873. 



E>ttetth:d, according to act of Congress, in the year 1S73, by 
CHARLES C. JOXES, Jr., 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



TO 

THE STATE OF GEORGIA, 

THIS VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 
B T 

ONE OF HER SONS. 



PREFACE. 



Although the title intimates that our investiga- 
tions have been directed principally to an examination 
of the antiquities of a single State, the present work 
will be found to embrace within its scope a much more 
extended field of observation. In prosecuting the pro- 
posed inquiries, it appeared both unnecessary and im- 
proper narrowly to observe the boundary-lines which 
separate modern States. It will be remembered, more- 
over, that the original grant from the British crown 
conveyed to the Trustees of the Colony of Georgia a 
territory greater by far than that now embraced with- 
in the geographical limits accorded to her as a State. 
A striking similarity exists among the customs, uten- 
sils, implements, and ornaments of all the Southern 
Indians : consequently, in elucidating the archaeology 
of a region often occupied in turn by various tribes, 
it seemed appropriate to mention and contrast the 



vi 



PEEFACE. 



antiquities of Virginia, the Carol mas, Florida, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee. 

Our object has "been, from the earliest and most 
authentic sources of information at command, to con- 
vey a correct impression of the location, character- 
istics, form of government, social relations, manufac- 
tures, domestic economy, diversions, and customs of 
the Southern Indians, at the time of primal contact 
between them and the . Europeans. • This introducto- 
ry part of the work is followed by an examination of 
tumuli, earthworks, and various relics obtained from 
burial-mounds, gathered amid refuse-piles, found in an- 
cient graves, and picked up in cultivated fields and on 
the sites of old villages and fishing-resorts. When- 
ever these could be interpreted in the light of early 
recorded observations, or were capable of explanation 
by customs not obsolete at the dawn of the historic 
period, the authorities relied upon have been carefully 
noted. 

The accompanying plans of mounds were prepared 
from personal surveys, and nearly every typical object 
used in illustration may be seen in the author's collec- 
tion. Most of these relics were obtained by me in 
situ. They are now figured for the first time. 

To the friends who have kindly aided me in gather- 
ing together a cabinet which so fully and beautifully 
represents the arts and the manufactures of these 



PEEFACE. 



Vll 



primitive peoples, I here renew my cordial and grate- 
ful acknowledgments. 

Prepared at irregular intervals and in odd mo- 
ments as they conlcl be borrowed from the exacting 
and ever-recurring engagements of an active profes- 
sional life, these pages, with their manifest short- 
comings, are offered in the hope that they will, at 
least in some degree, minister to the information and 
pleasure of those who are not incurious with regard 
to the subject of American archaeology. 

Charles C. Joxes, Jr. 

New Yoek, April 10, 1878. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Location of Tribes. — Physical Characteristics of the Southern Indians. — System 
of Government. — The Mico. — The Eead War-Chief. — Public Buildings in a 
Creek Village. — Mode of Warfare. — Office of High-Priest. — Sun- Worship. — 
Offering of the Stag. — Idol-Worship. — Eeligious Ideas. — The Sun among the 
Natchez.— The Cacica of Cutifachiqui. — Mausoleum of Talomeco. — Tombs of 
the Virginia Kings, . . . . . . Page 1 

CHAPTER II. 

Office of the Conjurer or Medicine-man. — Treatment of the Sick. — Medicinal 
Plants. — Towns and Private Houses. — Tenure of Property. — Agricultural 
Pursuits. — Town Plantations and Private Gardens. — Public Granaries. — Ani- 
mal and Vegetable Food. — Mechanical Labors. — Early Mining in Duke's-Creek 
Valley. — Manufacture of Canoes, Pottery, Copper Implements, Gold, Silver, 
Shell, and Stone Ornaments. — Various Implements and Articles of Stone, 
Bone, and Wood. — Trade Relations, ..... £8 

CHAPTER III. 

Marriage and Divorce. — Punishment of Adultery. — Costume and Ornaments. — 
Skin-painting and Tattooing. — Manufacture of Carpets, Feather-shawls, and 
Moccasins. — Weaving, . . . . . . .65 

CHAPTER IV. 

Music and Musical Instruments. — Dancing.— Games. — Gambling. — Festivals. — 
Divisions of the Year.— Counting. — Funeral Customs, . . .90 



X 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE V. 

General Observations on Mound-Building. — Bartraui's Account of the Georgia 
Tumuli. — Absence of Megalithic Monuments and Animal-shaped Mounds. — 
Distribution of the Ancient Population. — Few Sepulchral Mounds erected 
since the Advent of Europeans. — Antiquity of the Tumuli, . Page 118 



CHAPTER VI. 

Mounds on the Etowah River. — Temple for Sun-worship. — Stone Images. — Fish- 
Preserves. — Tumuli in the Valley of Little Shoulder-bone Creek. — Circular 
Earthwork on the Head-waters of the Ogeechee. — Stone Tumulus nearSparta # 
—Mounds on the Savannah River. — Meeting between the Cacica of the Savan- 
nah and De Soto, . . . . . . 136 



CHAPTER VII. 

Tumuli on the Ocmulgee River, opposite Macon. — Brown's Mount. — Mound on 
Messier's Plantation, in Early County, . . . . .158 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Chunky- Yards. — Elevated Spaces. — Mounds of Observation and Retreat. — Tumuli 
on Woolfolk's Plantation. — Sepulchral Tumuli. — Chieftain-Mounds. — Custom 
of burying Personal Property with the Dead. — Savannah owes a Monument 
to Tomo-chi-chi. — Family or Tribal Mounds. — Cremation, . .178 



CHAPTER IX. 

Shell-Mounds. — Tumulus on Stalling's Island. — Shell-Heaps and their Contents. — 
Rock-Piles. — Indian Affection for the Graves of their Departed. — Ancient 
Burial-Ground on the Coast. — Rock-Walls, Embankments, and Defensive En- 
closures. — Stone Mountain. — Fortified Towns of the Southern Indians, 195 



CHAPTER X. 

Stone Graves in Nacoochee Yalley and elsewhere. — Copper Implements and the 
Use of that Metal among the Southern Indians. — Cane-Matting. — Shell 
Drinking-Cups. — Shell Pins. — Age of Stone Graves. — Evidence of Commerce 
among the Aborigines, . . . . . . .213 



CHAPTER XL 

Arrow and Spear Heads. — Use of the Bow. — Skill in Archery. — Manufacture and 
General Distribution of Arrow and Spear Points. — Various Forms of these Im- 
plements. — Stone Dagger. — Flint Sword, .... 240 



CONTENTS. 



xi 



CHAPTER XII. 

Grooved Axes. — Hand and Wedge-shaped Axes or Celts. — Perforated and Orna- 
mental or Ceremonial Axes. — Chisels. — Gouges. — Scrapers. — Flint Knives. — 
Awls, or Borers. — Leaf-shaped Implements. — Smoothing-Stones. — Drift-Im- 
plements, . . . . . Page 269 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Agriculture and Agricultural Implements. — Ceremony of the Busk. — Cultivation 
of Maize. — Mortars and Pestles. — Crushing-Stones. — Nut-Stones. — Use of 
Walnut and Hickory-nut Oil, . . . . . .298 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Fishing. — Wears. — Nets. — Net-sinkers. — Plummets, . . . 321 

CHAPTER XY. 

Discoidal Stones. — Chungkc-Game, ...... 341 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Stone Tubes, . . ... . . . . .359 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Stones for rounding Arrow-shafts. — Whetstones or Sharpeners. — Pierced Tablets. 
— Pendants. — Slung-stones. — Amulets. — Stone Plate. — Mica Mirrors. — Sculp- 
tured Rocks, . . . . . ' . .366 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Pipes. — The Use of Tobacco. — Idol Pipes. — Calumets. — Common Pipes. . 383 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Idol- Worship among the Southern Indians. — Stone and Terra-Cotta Images, 413 
CHAPTER XX. 

Pottery, . ... . . . . . .441 

CHAPTER XXI. 

The Use of Pearls as Ornaments among the Southern Indians, . . 467 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Primitive Uses of Shells. — Shell-Money. — Shell Ornaments. — Personal Decoration?. 
— Conclusion, . . . . . . . . 495 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 



•Plate I. {To face page 136.) 
Tumuli and Fish -Preserves in the Etowah Valley, Georgia. 

Plate II. {To face page 144.) 
Figs. 1 and 2. Tumuli in the Valley of Little Shoulder-bone Creek. 

3. Enclosed Work. 

4. Circular Earthwork on the Head-waters of the Ogeechee. 

5. Stone Tumulus near Sparta, Georgia. 

Plate III. {To face page 152.) 
Tumuli on the Savannah River, below Augusta. 

Plate IV. {To face page 158.) 
Tumuli on the Ocmulgee River, opposite the City of Macon. 

Plate IV., A. {To face page 160.) 
Fig. 1. Skull of a Creek Indian. 

2 and 3. Two Views of the Skull of an Ancient Mound-builder. 

Plate V. {To face page 168.) 
Mound on Messier's Plantation, in Early County. 

Plate VI. {To face page 224.) 
Relics found in Stone Graves in Nacoochee Valley. 
Fig. 1. Cane Matting. 

2-7. Copper Implements. 
8 and 9. Shell Pins. 
10. Soapstone Pin. 
11 and 12. Stone Beads. 



XIV 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS. 



Plate VII. (To face page 252.) 
^ Figs. 1 aDd 2. Large Flint Spear-heads. 
3 and 5. Flint Daggers. 
4. Serrated Flint Sword. 



Figs. 1—41. Typical Forms of Arrow-points. 

Plate X. (To face page 21 '4.) 
Figs. 1-7. Typical Forms of Grooved Stone Axes. 
8. Stone Adze. 

Plate XL (To face page 278.) 
v Figs. 1-6. Typical Forms of Polished StDne Celts. 



Stone Axe from Tennessee. 

Plate XIII. (To face page 282.) 
Figs. 1-5. Typical Forms of Perforated and Ornamental or Ceremonial 
' Hatchets. 
6. Hammer-Stone. 



Plate Till. (To face page 254.) 
Figs. 1-12. Typical Forms of Flint Spear-heads. 



Plate IX. (To face page 258.) 



Plate XII. (To face page 280.) 



Plate XIV. (To face page 286.) 



Figs, 



1-4. Stone Chisels. 
5-7. Stone Gouges. 
8. Bone Gouge. 

9-14. Typical Forms of Stone Scrapers. 



Figs, 



Plate XV. (To face page 290.) 
1-9. Flint Knives and Leaf-shaped Implements. 



Plate XVI. (To face page 292.) 



Fig. 1. Bone Awl. 

2-5. Stone Borers. 
6-9. Smoothing-Stones. 
10. Drift Implement. 



Plate XVII. (To face page 302.) 

Fig. 1. Stone Hoe. 
2. Stone Spade. 

3-5. Flint Agricultural Implements. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XV 



Plate XVIII. (To face page 312.) 
J Figs. 1 3. Stone Mortars. 
4-5. Stone Pestles. 

6 and 8. Maize-crushers or Triturating Stones. 
7. Stone upon which Nuts were cracked. 

Plate XIX. (To face page 338.) 
v Figs. 1-6. Perforated Stone Net-sinkers. 
7-11. Grooved " " 
12. Fishing Plummet. 

Plate XX. {To faze page 34S.) 
^ Figs. 1-13. Discoidal Stones. 

Plate XXI. {To face page 358.) 
v Figs. 1-6. Stone Tubes. 

Plate XXII. (To face page 366.) 
v - Fig. I. Stone for rounding Arrow-shafts. 

2 and 3. Pierced Tablets. 

4. Slang-stone. 

5. Amulet. 

6. Stone Plate. 

7. Whetstone. 

Plate XXIII. (To face page 404.) 
v Figs. 1-9. Typical Forms of Calumets. 

Plate XXIV. (To face page 410.) 
v Figs. 1-7. Typical Forms of Common Clay and Stone Pipes. 

Plate XXV. To face page 430.) 
v Figs. 1-9. Clay Images. 

Plate XXVI. (To face page 432.) 
1 Figs. 1-3. Front; Side and Eear Views of the Stone Image found in the 
Etowah Valley, Georgia. 

Plate XXVII. (To face page 454.) 

v ' Fig. 1. Burial-Urn. 

2. Large Earthen Pot. 

3 and 4. Jars. 

5-7. Pots with Ears. 
S. Pot with Legs. 
9 and 10. Bowls. 



t 



xvi 



LIST OF ILLIISTKATIONS. 



Plate XXYIIL {To face 'page 456.) 

Fig. 1. Jar. 

2. Burial-Urn. 

3 and 4. Vessels with Narrow Necks. 

5-10. Pottery from Stone Graves of Tennessee. 

Plate XXIX. {To face page 458.) 
Figs. 1-32. Sherds, showing the Ornamentation of Primitive Pottery. 

Plate XXX. {7o face page 502.) 
Figs. 1 and 2. Wampum or Shell AToney. 
3 and 4. Shell Gorgets. 
5-7. Shell Pins. 

8. The Oliva as a Shell Bead. 

9. The Marginella as a Shell Bead. 

10-12. Imperforate Columns of Sea-Shells as Articles of Commerce. 
13. Bone Bead. 

14-19. Typical Forms of Shell Beads. 



WOODCUTS. 

1. Buried Canoe from the Savannah -Eiver Swam p, . . Page 53 

2. Bartram's Plan of the " Chunk-Yard " of the Muscogulges or Creeks, 179 

3. Two Views of a Sculptured Pock in Forsyth County, Georgia, . 378 



ANTIQUITIES 

OF THE 

SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



CHAPTEK I. 

Location of Tribes. — Physical Characteristics of the Southern Indians. — System 
of Government. — The Mico. — The Head War-Chief. — Public Buildings in a 
Creek Village. — Mode of "Warfare. — Office of High-Priest. — Sun-Worship. — 
Offering of the Stag. — Idol-Worship. — Pteligious Ideas. — The Sun among the 
Xatchez. — The Cacica of Cutifachiqui. — Mausoleum of Talomeco. — Tombs of 
the Virginia Kings. 

By letters patent, elated the 9th of June, 1732, 
King George II. incorp orated the trustees for estab- 
lishing the colony of Georgia in America, and con- 
veyed to them and their successors " seven-eighths 
of all that territory lying "between the Savannah and 
Alatamaha Eivers, and westwardly from the heads of 
the said rivers respectively, in direct lines, to the 
south seas." In this alienation were embraced all isl- 
ands within twenty leagues of the coast. Including a 
large portion of the present States of Alabama and 
Mississippi, this grant claimed an extension, in a west- 
erly direction, as indefinite as was then the geographi- 
cal Knowledge of the region intended to be comprised 
in the royal feofment. 

Of the Indian nations, east of the Mississippi Eiver, 
occupying and living adjacent to this territory about 



2 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEE2T INDIANS. 



the beginning of the eighteenth century, the dominant 
peoples were the Uckees, Lower, Middle, and Upper 
Creeks — constituting the formidable Muscogee Con- 
fedeeacy — the Yaniasees, the Chemkees, the Chicka- 
saws, the Choctaws, the Natchez and the Seminoles. 1 
East of the Savannah Eiver resided the Catawbas, the 
Savannahs, and the Westoes — the* latter tribe includ- 
ing the Stonoes and the Edistoes— cruel and hostile 
peoples, between whom and the Carolina colonists early 
and prolonged warfare ensued. The Yamasees are 
mentioned by Governor Archdale 2 as living about 
eighty miles from Charleston, and- extending their 
hunting excursions' nearly to St. Augustine. This 
was in 1695. Between the Westoes and the Savan- 
nahs — both potent tribes and numbered by " many 
thousands" — a violent civil strife arose, in conse- 
quence of which they were greatly reduced in popula- 
tion and resources. This contest resulted in the final 
overthrow and expulsion, of the Westoes — " the more 
cruel of the two " — the Savannahs continuing " good 
friends and useful neighbors to the English." 3 Small- 
pox and other unusual sicknesses are said, at an early 
period of the English colonization of Carolina, to have 
wrought sad havoc among the natives. 

Surveyor- General Lawson describes the Savannahs 
as a " famous, warlike, friendly nation of Indians liv- 

1 See Bowen's map of Georgia, etc. London, 1764. JefFery's map of Florida. 
London, 1773. Gallatin's map. " Arehseologia Americana," vol. ii., p. 265. 

The Chickasaws are described by Captain Komans 1 as a fierce, cruel, insolent, 
and haughty race, corrupt in morals, filthy in discourse, lazy, powerful, and well- 
made, expert swimmers, good warriors and excellent hunters. The Choctaws, on 
the contrary, he praises as a nation of farmers, inclined to peace and industry. 

2 " Description of Carolina," etc., p. 19. London, 1707. 

3 Archdale's "Description of Carolina," p. 3. London, 1707. 



1 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," pp. 59-67, 71. New 
York, 1775. 



THE YAMASEES, T7CHEES AND CREEKS. 



3 



ing to the south end of Ashly River." 1 They prob- 
ably derived their name from the river whose banks 
they inhabited, and it is Mr. Gallatin's opinion 2 that 
they and the Yamasees were one and the same people, 
the latter being the true Indian name. 

These Yamasees and their confederates were, in 
1715, routed by Governor Craven and driven across 
the Savannah River into the arms of the Spaniards in 
Florida. It is not improbable that the Yamacraws, 
who were occupying the present site of the city of Sa- 
vannah when General Oglethorpe landed and estab- 
lished the colony of Georgia, were a remnant of this 
tribe. Anions; the allies of the Yamasees the Uchees 
were numbered, and they, too, after this signal discom- 
fiture, contented themselves with a residence in the 
everglades of Florida, Theirs, of all the Indian lan- 
guages of this region, was the most uncouth and gut- 
tural. Bart ram asserts that their national language 
was radically different from the Muscogulgee tongue. 
He was informed by the traders that their dialect was 
the same as that of the Shawnees. Although at one 
time confederated with the Creeks, they refused to 
mix with them and excited the jealousy of that whole 
nation. 

The Chickasaws at one period occupied the left 
bank of the Savannah River opposite Augusta. 3 

About the date of the colonization of Georgia, the 
territory of the Creek Confederacy — including lands 
inhabited by the Seminoles — was bounded on the 
west by Mobile River and by the ridge separating 
the waters of the Tombigbee from those of the Ala- 
bama (the latter being the contested boundary -line be- 



1 " History of Carolina," p. 42. London, 1714. 

2 Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, " Archaeologia Americana," vol. ii., p. 84. 

3 Haywood's " Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 290. 



4 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



tween the Creeks and the Choctaws), on the north by 
the Cherokees, on the northeast by the Savannah 
River, and on every other side by the Atlantic Ocean 
and the Gulf of Mexico. It is believed, at the end of 
the seventeenth century, that south of the thirty-fourth 
degree of north latitude the Creeks occupied the east- 
ern as well as the western bank of the Savannah. It 
cannot now be ascertained with certainty when the 
consolidation of this confederacy was effected. " It is 
probable," says Mr. Gallatin, " that the appellation of 
Appalachians was geographical, and applied to the 
Indians living on the Appalachicola or Chattahoochee 
River, as the name of Creeks seems to have been given 
from an early time to those inhabiting generally the 
country adjacent to the Savannah River." Of the 
Creek Confederacy, by far the most numerous and 
powerful nation was the Muscogee. 1 The Hitckit- 
tees, who resided on the Chattahoochee and Flint 
Rivers, although a distinct tribe, spoke a dialect of 
the Muscogee. The Seminoles, or Isty-semole (wild 
men), inhabiting the peninsula of Florida, were pure 
Muscogees, and received that name because they 
subsisted principally by hunting and devoted but 
little attention to agriculture. 2 

When questioned as to their origin, the Muscogees 
responded that the prevailing tradition among them 
was, that their progenitors had issued out of a cave 
near the Alabama River. The account given by the 
Hitchittees of their beginning was scarcely less fanci- 
ful. They claimed that their ancestors had fallen from 
the sky. 

1 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., by Captain Ber- 
nard Romans. New York, 1*7*75. 

^ Gallatin's Synopsis of the Indian Tribes. " Archseologia Americana," vol. 
ii., p. 94. 



THE CHACTAWS, UCHEES AND NATCHEZ. 



"The Chactaws," says Captain Romans, "have told 
me of a hole between their nation and the Chicasaws, 
out of which their whole, very numerous nation, walked 
forth at once, without so much as warning any neigh- 
bor." 1 

The Uchees and the Natchez both acknowledged 
allegiance to the Creek Confederacy. The original 
seats of the Uchees are thought to have been east 
of the Coosa, and probably of the Chattahoochee. 
They declared themselves the most ancient inhabitants 
of the country, and it has been suggested that they 
were the peoples called Appalaches by the historians 
of De Soto's expedition. Their country was mentioned 
as a land abounding in towns and subsistence. Early 
in the eighteenth century, they occupied the western 
bank of the Savannah River; and, as late as 1736, 
claimed the country both above and below Augusta. 
The name of at least one creek in Columbia County 
perpetuates at once their memory and the fact of their 
former occupancy of this region. 

A residue of the Natchez forsook their old habitat 
on the banks of the Mississippi, and, journeying east- 
ward, associated themselves with the Creeks less than 
one hundred and fifty years ago. The principal towns 
of the Creeks were Cussetah, Cowetah, Tukawbatchie, 
and Oscoochee. 2 The Muscogee, the Hitchittee, the 
Uchee, the Natchez, and the Alibamon or Coosada, 
were the principal languages spoken by the various 
tribes composing the Creek Confederacy. On the 12th 
of March, 1733, General Oglethorpe mentions the 
Lower and Upper Creeks, and the Uchees, as the three 

1 "Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," p. 58. New York, 
1775. 

2 "Archseologia Americana," vol. ii., p. 95. 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



most powerful Indian nations in Georgia between the 
mountains and the coast. The Lower Creeks consisted 
of nine towns or cantons, and their warriors were esti- 
mated by him at one thousand. The military strength 
of the Upper Creeks he computes at eleven hundred 
men capable of bearing arms y while it was supposed 
that the Uchees were at that time unable to brins; into 
the field more than two hundred bow-men. This esti- 
mate is evidently too small, and was vaguely formed. 
De Brahm, 1 at a later elate, reckons the population of 
the Upper and Lower Creeks at fifteen thousand men, 
women, and children, and rates their warriors and gun- 
men above three thousand. To Colonel Hawkins 2 we 
are indebted for a very valuable sketch of the Creek 
country in 1798 and 1799. 

The Creeks are described as powerful warriors, 
great politicians, and full of jealousy. They were a 
terror to the Cherokees and to the various Indian na- 
tions with whom they waged ceaseless wars. 3 

Captain Romans 4 enumerates remnants of the Ca- 
wittas, Talepoosas, Coosas, Apalachias, Conshacs, or 
Coosades, Oakmulgis, Oconis, Okchoys, Alibamons, 
Natchez, Weetumkus, Pakanas, Taensas, Chacsihoomas, 
Abekas, and of other tribes, whose names he did not 
recollect, all calling themselves Muscokees, and consti- 
tuting what was known as the Creek Confederacy. 

"The territories of the Cherokees, Chelakees, or 
more properly, Tsalakies," says Mr. Gallatin, " extended 

1 "History of the Province of Georgia," etc., p. 55. Wormsloe, 1849. 

2 " Collections of the Georgia Historical Society," vol. hi., part 1., p. X8, et 
seq. Savannah, 1848. See, also, "A Voyage to Georgia," begun in the year 
1735, by Francis Moore, p. 61. London, 1744. 

3 "History of the Province of Georgia," by De Brahrn, p. 55. Wormsloe, 
1849. Adair's "History of the North-American Indians," p. 257, et seq. London^ 
1775. " Travels," etc., by William Bartram, p. 461, et seq. London, 1792. 

4 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., p. 90. New 
York, 1775. 



TEEEITOEY OF THE CHEROKEES. 



north and south of the southwesterly continuation of 
the Appalachian Mountains, embracing on the north 
the country on Tennessee or Cherokee River and its 
tributary streams, from their sources down to the vi- 
cinity of the Muscle Shoals, where they were bound- 
ed on the west by the Chicasas. The Cumberland 
mountain may be considered as having been the bound- 
ary on the north; but, since the country has been 
known to us, no other Indian nation, except some 
small bands of Shawnoes, had any settlement between 
that mountain and the Ohio." On the west side of the 
Savannah, the Cherokees were confronted on the south 
by the Creeks, the division-line being Broad River and 
generally along the thirty-fourth parallel of north lati- 
tude. East of the Savannah, their original seats em- 
braced the upper waters of that river, of the Santee, 
and, probably, of the Yadkin, but could not have ex- 
tended as far south as the thirty-fourth degree of north 
latitude. They were bounded on the south, probably, 
by Muskhogee tribes in the vicinity of the Savannah, 
and, farther east, by the Catawbas. 1 

Between the Shawnoes and the Cherokees prolonged 
strife occurred, which resulted in the expulsion of the 
former from the country south of the Ohio. With the 
Creeks also the Cherokees were constantly at variance. 
When in 1730 the whites interposed their good offices 
to bring about a pacification between the Tuscaroras 
and the Cherokees, the latter responded : " We cannot 
live without war; should we make peace with the Tus- 
caroras, with whom we are at war, we must imme- 
diately look out for some other with whom we can be 
engaged in our beloved occupation." 2 

1 " Arehreologia Americana," vol. ii., p. 90. 

2 Haywood's "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 238. Nash- 
ville, 1823. 



8 



ANTIQUITIES OE THE SOETHERN INDIANS. 



The history of the Cherokees is marked by con- 
tinued and prolonged struggles. Their country being 
strong, their men trained to arms, and the integrity of 
the nation at all times wonderfully preserved, these 
peoples do not appear, in their territorial possessions, to 
have been materially injured by their frequent contests 
with adjacent tribes. In 1762 Adair estimated the 
number of their warriors at three thousand two hun- 
dred, and adds, he was informed that, forty years before, 
they had at least six thousand men capable of bearing 
arms. 1 

In perpetuating his impressions of the physical 
characteristics of the Southern Indians, Mr. Bartram 2 
writes: "The males of the Cherokees, Muscogulgees, 
Siminoles, Chicasaws, Chactaws, and confederate tribes 
of the Creeks, are tall, erect, and moderately robust ; 
their limbs well shaped, so as generally to form a jjer- 
fect human figure ; their features regular and counte- 
nance open, dignified, and placid ; yet the forehead and 
brow so formed as to strike you instantly with heroism 
and bravery ; the eye, though rather small, active and 
full of fire ; the iris always black, and the nose com- 
monly inclining to the aquiline. Their countenance and 
actions exhibit an air of magnanimity, superiority, and 
independence. Their complexion of a reddish brown 
or copper color ; their hair long, lank, coarse, and black 
as a raven, and reflecting the like lustre at different 
exposures to the light. The women of the Cherokees 
are tall, slender, erect, and of a delicate frame ; their 
features formed with perfect symmetry, their counte- 
nance cheerful and friendly; and they move with a 
becoming grace and dignity. 

1 " History of the American Indians, 1 ' p. 227. London, 1775. 

2 " Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., p. 481. Lon- 
don, 1792. 



THE MUSCOGULG-EES AXD CHEROKEES. 



9 



" The Muscogulgee women, though remarkably short 
of stature, are well formed ; their visage round, features 
regular and beautiful, the brow high and arched ; the 
eye large, black, and languishing, expressive of modesty, 
diffidence, and bashfulness; these charms are their de- 
fensive and offensive weapons; and they know very 
well how to play them off; and, under cover of these 
alluring graces, are concealed the most subtle artifices ; 
they are, however, loving and affectionate ; they are, I 
believe, the smallest race of women yet known, seldom 
above five feet high, and I believe the greater number 
never arrive to that stature ; their hands and feet not 
larger than those of Europeans of nine or ten years of 
age ; yet the men are of gigantic stature, a full size 
larger than Europeans ; many of them above six feet, 
and few under that, or five feet eight or ten inches. 
Their complexion much darker than any of the tribes 
to the north of them that I have seen. This descrip- 
tion will, I believe, comprehend the Muscogulges, their 
confederates, the Chactaws, and, I believe, the Chica- 
saws (though I have never seen their women), except- 
ing some bands of the Siminoles, Uches, and Savaunu- 
cas, who are rather taller and slenderer and their 
complexion brighter. 

" The Cherokees are yet taller and more robust than 
the Muscogulges, and by far the largest race of men I 
have seen; their complexions brighter and somewhat of 
the olive cast, especially the adults ; and some of their 
young women are nearly as fair and blooming as Euro- 
pean women. 

" The Cherokees, in their dispositions and manners, 
are grave and steady; dignified and circumspect in 
their deportment ; rather slow and reserved in conver- 
sation ; yet frank, cheerful, and humane ; tenacious of 



10 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 



the liberties and natural rights of man ; secret, delib- 
erate, and determined in their councils; honest, just, 
and liberal, and ready always to sacrifice every pleasure 
and gratification, even their blood and life itself to de- 
fend their territory and maintain their rights. ... 

" The national character of the Muscogulges, when 
considered in a political view, exhibits a protraiture 
of a great or illustrious hero. A proud, haughty, and 
arrogant race of men, they are brave and valiant in 
war, ambitious of conquest, restless and perpetually 
exercising their arms, yet magnanimous and merciful 
to a vanquished enemy when he submits and seeks their 
friendshijD and protection ; always uniting the van- 
quished tribes in confederacy with them : when they 
immediately enjoy, un exception ably, every right of free 
citizens, and are, from that moment, united in one 
common band of brotherhood. They were never known 
to exterminate a tribe, except the Yamasees, who would 
never submit on any terms, but fought it out to the 
last, only about forty or fifty of them escaping at the 
last decisive battle, who threw themselves under the 
protection of the Spaniards, at St. Augustine. . . . 
The Muscogulges are more volatile, sprightly, and talk- 
ative, than their northern neighbors, the Cherokees." 

The system of government obtaining among these 
Southern nations seems, in its general features, to have 
been quite similar. In the Muscogulgee confederacy 
every town or village was regarded as an independent 
nation or tribe having its own mico or chief. In the 
soil and in the hunting privileges of the region each 
inhabitant had an equal right. Private property in 
habitations and in planting-grounds, however, was 
conceded and respected. 



THE MICO AXD GEE AT WAR-CHIEF. 



11 



The Mico 1 was considered the first man, in dignity 
and power, in his nation or town. He was the su- 
preme civil magistrate, and presided over the national 
council. His executive power was not independent, 
however, of the council, which convened every day, in 
the forenoon, in the public square. This office of mico 
or kino- -yras elective. The advancement to this su- 
preme dignity was always conferred upon the person 
most worthy of it. 

Next in the order of dignity and power was the 
Geeat "War-Chief. He led the army. In council 
his seat was nearest, the mico, on his left, and at the 
head of the most celebrated warriors. On the right 
of the mico sat the second head-man of the tribe, and 
below him the younger warriors of the nation. 

When assembled in the Great Rotunda, or Winter 
Council-House, for the purpose of deliberating upon 
matters of general concern, the most profound respect 
and homage were paid by every one to the mico. To 
him the members of the council bowed very low, almost 
to his feet, when the cup-bearer handed him the shell 
filled with the black-drink. 2 This decoction of the 
leaves and tender twigs of the cassine or ilex yupon 
was freely used by the natives upon occasions of sol- 
emn deliberation. Being a most active and powerful 
diuretic, its purgative influences were invoked to free 
their bodies from all hinderance to thought ; and, thus 
prepared for careful discussion, they entered upon the 
consideration of the important matters presented for 
the action of council. Be Bry presents us with a spir- 
ited sketch of the kino; and warriors in convention 

1 "Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. iii., part 1, p. 23. 
Compare Lawsons "History of Carolina," p. 195. London, 171-1. 

2 " Brevis Xarratio," plate xxix. Francoforti ad Moeuum, De Bry. Anno 
1591. 



12 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



assembled, drinking freely of this cassine from shell- 
cnps and listening to the animated address of one of 
the principal men. When out of the council-house, 
and unemployed in public affairs, the intercourse be- 
tween the mico and the common people was cordial 
and free from restraint. If we may credit the repre- 
sentations of De Bry, 1 no little ceremony was observed 
when the kings and queens of the Florida tribes ap- 
peared in public. The mico alone had the disposal of 
the corn and fruits collected in the public granary. 
These general storehouses, circular in form — their 
walls constructed of stone and earth, and their roofs 
fashioned with the branches of trees, grass, clay, and 
palmetto-leaves — were located in the neighborhood of 
streams and in retired spots where they were protected 
from the direct rays of the sun. They were built and 
furnished by the common labor of the tribe, and in 
them were stored corn, various fruits, and the flesh of 
fishes, deer, alligators, snakes, dogs, and other animals, 
previously smoked and dried on a scaffold. 2 

With the first fruits of the season was the king 
complimented. It was his province to give audience to 
ambassadors, deputies, and strangers, and to him were 
public presents offered. He alone had the privilege 
of giving a general feast to an entire village, on which 
occasion the king's standard was displayed in front of 
his house, a flag hoisted in the public square, drums 
beat about the town, and the inhabitants busily en- 
gaged in painting and dressing themselves for the 
festivities. In the sixteenth century, the Florida war- 
riors, when about to set out on a hostile expedition, 



1 "Brevis Narratio," plates xxxvii., xxxviii., and xxxix. Francoforti ad Moe- 
num. Anno 1591. 

2 See plates xxii., xxiii., and xxiw, of the "Brevis Narratio." 



THE OFFICE OF KITO. 



13 



assembled round their king, who, taking a dipper of 
water and sprinkling them, exclaimed, " As I have scat- 
tered this water, so do you cause the blood of your 
enemies to now freely." Then, with water from 
another vessel, extinguishing a fire kindled in the cir- 
cle, he added, " As I have put out this flame, so may 
you vanquish and destroy your antagonists." 1 

It would appear that, on some occasions, the king, 
when about to enter into battle, was borne upon a 
platform elevated upon the heads and shoulders of his 
men. 2 

The care and protection of widows, whose hus- 
bands had fallen in battle or perished by disease, 
devolved upon the king. 3 

Capital punishment was meted out in the pres- 
ence of the mico and council seated in a semicircle, the 
victim kneeling in the centre, and the executioner, his 
left foot upon the back of the criminal, with a stout, 
paddle-shaped club made of hard wood, striking him 
upon the top of the head with such violence as to split 
the skull/ 

The custom obtained among; some of the Southern 
nations of sacrificing to the kino; the first-born male 
child.* 

The office of kino- was for life, or during o-ood be- 
havior. 

It cannot be denied that to the kingly office, 
among most of the Southern tribes, appertained, des- 
potic powers. Especially was this the fact at the 
period of our first acquaintance with the form of gov- 
ernment dominant among these peoples. By at least 



-i "Brevis Xarratio," plate xi. ■ Ibid., plate xiii. 3 Ibid., plate xxiii. 
4 Ibid., plate xxxii. 5 Ibid., plate xxxiii. 



14 



AXTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN TXDIAXS. 



one of the early historians are we assured that, in sa- 
luting a cacique, the subject used gestures, somewhat 
modified in degree, but similar in form to those em- 
ployed in the adoration of the sun. The intimation is 
that in his person and position were recognized a su- 
periority, a dignity, and an authority near akin, but 
subordinate to those which inhered in the celestial 
luminary — the most potent and admirable rejDresenta- 
tive of the goodness and supremacy of the Great 
Spirit. 

Colonel Hawkins 1 thus epitomizes the duties of 
the Creek mico in 17 98 : The mico of the town super- 
intends all public and domestic concerns, receives 
all public characters, hears their talks, lays them be- 
fore the town and delivers the talks of his town. The 
mico of a town is always chosen from some one fani- 
ilv. The mico of Tuck-au-bat-che is of the eaode 
tribe (Lum-ul-gee). After he is chosen and put on 
his seat, he remains for life. On his death, if his 
nejxhews are fit for the office, one of them takes his 
place as his successor ; if they are unfit, one is chosen 
of the next of kin, the descent being always in the 
female line. 

When a mico, from age, infirmity, or any other 
cause, wants an assistant, he selects a man who ap- 
pears to him the best qualified, and proposes him to 
the councillors and great men of the town, and, if he is 
approved by them, they appoint him as an assistant 
in public affairs. 

The mico, councillors, and warriors, meet every day 
in the public square, sit and drink a-cee — a strong- 
decoction of the cassine yupon, called by the traders 



1 " Sketch of the Creek Country." Collections of the Georgia Historical Soci- 
ety, vol. iii., part i., p. 69. Savannah, 1848. 



WAR, PEACE, PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 



15 



hlack-drhik — talk of news, the public and domestic 
concerns, smoke their pipes and play thla-chal-1 itch-can. 
They have a regular ceremony for making as well as 
delivering thea-cee to all who attend the square. In 
all transactions which require secrecy the rulers meet 
in the chooc-ofau-thluc-co — the rotunda or assembly- 
room called by the traders hot-house — kindle the spiral 
fire, deliberate, and decide. When they have decided 
on any case of death or whipping, the mico appoints 
the warriors who are to carry it into effect, or he gives 
the judgment to the great warrior (tustunnuggee- 
thluc-co) and leaves to him the time and manner of 
executing it. 

War is always determined on by the great warrior. 
If the mico and warriors are of opinion that the town 
has been injured, it is the province of the former to 
lift the hatchet against the offending nation. Even 
after a declaration of war, however, the mico and 
councillors may interpose and proceed to adjust the 
misunderstanding by negotiations. 

Peace is concluded by the mico and councillors, 
and peace-talks are always addressed to the cabin of 
the mico. It is the privilege of the mico and coun- 
cillors to fix the precise time for the celebration of the 
annual festival of the Boos-ke-tau. 

Of the buildings which formed the public square 
in the Creek villages, the first in rank was the mic-ul- 
gee-in-too-pau, or mico's cabin. It fronts the east. 
The centre of this building is occupied by the mico, 
the right division by the mic-ug-gee and the council- 
lors, and the left division by the people second in com- 
mand, who have the direction of the public works 
appertaining to the town. 

Second in rank is the tus-tun-nug-ul-gee-in-too-pau. 



16 



AXTIQTJITIE8 OF THE SOUTHERX INDIANS. 



or warrior's cabin. This fronts the south. At the 
west end of this cabin sits the head -warrior. In this 
division are seated also the great warriors. The next 
in rank sit in the centre division, and the young war- 
riors in the third. These warriors rise by merit, and 
the great-warrior is selected by the mico and coun- 
cillors as the most noted of all the warriors. The 
cabin of the beloved men — is-te-cha^uc-ul-^ee-in-too- 
pau— fronts north and is erected for the accommoda- 
tion of those who have been war-leaders and who 
have rendered themselves distinguished by a long 
course of valuable public service. Last in rank is 
hut-te-mau-hug-gee-in-too-pau — the cabin of the young 
peojue and their associates. This fronts the west. To 
these may be added the chooc-ofau-thluc-co — the ro- 
tunda, or assembly-room, called by the traders hot- 
house. In the centre of this is the spiral fire. This is 
the assembly-room for all people, old and young. 
Here they congregate every night, and amuse them- 
selves with dancing, singing, or conversation. In this 
building sometimes, in very cold weather, the old and 
naked sleep. 

In the absence of the mico, the Great Wae-Chtee 1 
represented him in council, and his voice was of the 
greatest weight in military affairs. His authority was 
independent of the mico, although, should the mico 
enter upon a military expedition, he was entitled to 
the command. Subordinate to the great war-captain 
were leaders of parties — elderly men distinguished for 
valor, strategy and intrepidity. Of such were their 
dignified and venerable councils composed. 

Having by fasts and purifications prepared them- 
selves for the expedition, having consulted the high- 



1 "Bartram's Travels,'' p. 494. Loudon, 1792. 



MODE OF WARFARE. 



17 



priest, 1 with regard to tlie success of the enterprise, and 
obtained from him a favorable response, fantastically 
painted and plumed, each carrying a small bag of 
parched corn, and armed with a long bow and quiver 
of arrows suspended from the right hip, and frequently 
with a formidable club made of hard wood, and a 
spear, 2 the warriors set off from the village with a great 
noise and defiant shouts. The head- warrior, taking the 
lead, was followed by the rest in single file. When 
near the hostile town or in the vicinity of the spot 
where a meeting with the enemy w r as anticipated, the 
most profound silence and careful circumspection were 
observed. Their conduct then resembled the action of 
the concealed lynx waiting for an opportunity to 
pounce upon its prey in an unguarded moment. A 
sudden attack, a fearful succession of wild yells, an in- 
discriminate massacre, and the demolition by fire of the 
habitations of their enemies, and then a hasty return 
with captives and bloody trophies of the pillage and 
butchery — these constituted, as a general rule, the sum 
total of a successful military excursion. " Their mail- 
er of warres," says, Thomas Hariot, 3 " amongst them- 
selues is either by sudden surprisiDg one an other most 
commonly about the dawning of the day, or moone 
light ; or els by ambushes, or some suttle deuises : 
Set battels are very rare, except it fall out where there 
are many trees, where eyther part may haue some hope 
of defence, after the deliuerie of euery arrowy in leaping 
behind some or other." The Southern Indians are said 

1 " Brevis Narratio," plate xii. 2 Ibid., plate xiv. 

3 " A Briefe and True Report of the New-found-land of Virginia," etc., p. 2o. 
Francoforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. Compare also Du Pratz's "His- 
tory of Louisiana," chapter iii., book iv., sec. vii., vol. ii., p. 242, et seq. Lon- 
don, 1763. Smith's "History of Virginia," Richmond reprint, 1819, vol. i., 
p. 132. 

2 



I 



18 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOTTTHEKN INDIANS. 

to have dealt less cruelly with their captives than did 
their Northern neighbors. The Spaniards found to 
their cost that the natives were very ready with their 
weapons. 

Says the Gentleman of Elvas, 1 " The Indians are so 
warlike and nimble that they have no fear of footmen ; 
for if these charge them, they flee, and when they turn 
their backs they are ]3resently upon them. They avoid 
nothing more easily than the flight of an arrow. They 
never remain quiet, but are continually running, trav- 
ersing from place to place, so that neither cross-bow 
nor arquebuse can be aimed at them. Before a Chris- 
tian can make a single shot with either, an Indian will 
discharge three or four arrows, and he seldom misses 
of his object. Where the arrow meets with no armour, 
it pierces as deeply as the shaft from a cross-bow. 
Their bows are very perfect ; the arrows are made of 
certain canes, like reeds, very heavy, and so stiff that 
one of them, when sharpened, will pass through a target. 
Some are pointed with the bone of a fish, sharp and 
like a chisel ; others with some stone, like a point of 
diamond: of such, the greater number, where they 
strike upon armour, break at the place where the parts 
are put together ; those of cane split, and will enter a 
shirt of mail, doing more injury than when armed." 

A public declaration of war was sometimes made 
by planting arrows along the pathway leading to the 
principal village of the enemy. 2 They also were able, 
by means of ignited tufts of dried moss and grass, at- 
tached to the heads of their arrows, to set fire to the 
thatched cabins located in the fortified towns of their 



1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida," 
translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 26. New York, 1846. 

2 " Brevis Xarratio," plate xxxii. 



WARLIKE CHARACTERISTICS. HIGH-PRIEST. 19 



adversaries. 1 The wretched cruelties visited even 
upon the dead bodies of the hostile slain are shock- 
ingly portrayed by De Bry in plate xv. of the " Brevis 
Narratio." 

Courage, craft, perseverance, physical endurance, 
stoicism, ability to counsel with wisdom and eloquence, 
experience in combat, and activity and skill in the use 
of weapons, must all have been acquired and exhibited 
in a marked manner before the Southern Indian came 
to be regarded as a leading warrior in his nation. His 
honor and love of country he esteemed of far greater 
value than life ; and the most exquisite tortures failed 
to compel him to surrender and compromise the one, 
or renounce the other. In the arts of strategy, ambus- 
cade, deception, and personal concealment, they excelled. 
Mr. Adair, 2 in his general observations on the North 
American Indians, presents us with a detailed account 
of the martial spirit, devotion to country, caution in 
war, method of fighting, cruelty to captives, fortitude 
in view of death, and the triumphs accorded to success- 
ful warriors, as they existed among the Southern In- 
dians during the period of his residence among them, 
which, did the limits of this general sketch permit, we 
would gladly here reproduce. 

A person of great power and consequence was the 
Ancient High-Priest. He presided in spiritual af- 
fairs ; and, in military matters, his influence was most 
potent. Never did the council determine upon a hos- 
tile expedition without his counsel and sanction. 3 To 
him was accorded the ability to hold personal com- 
munion with invisible spirits capable of exerting a con- 



1 "Brevis Narratio," plate xxxi. 

2 " History of the American Indians," etc., pp. 377, et seq. London, 1775. 

3 it Brevis Xarratio," plate xii. 



20 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



trolling influence over human plans. Through Mm the 
elements were propitiated, and his capability to foresee 
the result of an enterprise was unquestioned. 

So great, remarks Mr. Bart-ram, 1 is the influence of 
these high-priests, that they have been frequently 
known to stop and turn back an army after a march of 
several hundred miles, and when it had approached 
within a day's journey of the enemy. Their predic- 
tions were frequently surprising. They pretended, 
moreover, to foretell the coming of a drought, and to 
be able to bring rain upon the thirsty zea, to cure 
diseases, invoke or expel the presence of evil spirits, 
cause the tempest to cease, and direct the thunder and 
lio^htnino\ It was their office to mediate between the 
beloved red-people and the bountiful, holy sjDirit of 
Fire. With their advice the season was set for plant- 
ins:, and occasions were designated for the solemniza- 
tion of the public religious festivals. In every town 
they had their juniors or graduates learned in the con- 
jurer's and medicine-man's arts. 

Among; the Southern tribes the sun was regarded 
as the symbol of the power and beneficence of the 
Great Spirit, the Supreme Gocl, or Creator, the soul 
and governor of the universe, the giver and taker- 
away of the breath of life. Hence, to this celestial 
luminary did they pay profound homage as to the 
visible minister and representative of the author 
of life, and light, and heat. To it their vows were 
offered as they puffed the smoke from the great calu- 
met toward the heavens. With reverence did they 
look upon the face of this God of Day, as they delib- 
erated in council, or set out upon the war-path. Fire, 



1 " Travels,-' etc., p. 495. London, 1192. " Transactions of the American 
Ethnological Society," vol. iii., part i., p. 24. 



stix-woeship. supeestitioxs. 



21 



as an emanation from this celestial source, they vener- 
ated and propitiated with mysterious rites and cere- 
monies. Temples were erected at great cost of mate- 
rial and labor for this sun-worship, in which priests 
officiated. Their province it was to guard the Eternal 
Fire in the Rotunda; and, in the solemn, annual festi- 
val of the Busque, when all the fires of the nation 
were extinguished, the high-priest alone — ministering 
between the Great Spirit and man — was commissioned, 
in the temple, to reproduce the celestial spark and 
give new fire to the community. 

Believing in the immortality of the soul, in a future 
state of rewards and punishments, acknowledging the 
supreme power and control of one great, invisible, 
supreme spirit, these Southern Indians were plagued 
with an apprehension of visions, dreams, trances, and 
malign influences of lesser divinities, which afforded 
ample scope for the operation by priests and conjurers 
using incantations, charms, and mysterious appliances 
upon their hopes and fears, credulity, and superstitions. 
Upon the death of a high -priest, the entire community 
united in paying the fullest funeral honors, and heaped 
above him the conical earth-mound. 1 

If we may credit the assertion of the Gentleman 
of Elvas, 2 some of the Florida tribes worshipped the 
devil, and made offerings of human sacrifices to the 
spirit of evil. 

Toward the latter part of February in each year, 
the Indians of Florida, taking the skin of the largest 
stag they had killed, stuffed it with the choicest fruits 
and matters which chiefly delighted them. The horns. 

1 " Brevis Xarratio," plate xl. 

2 "Xarratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," etc., translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith, p. 31. Xew York, 1866. 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN" TNDIANS. 



neck, and body were encircled with vines and fruits 
most rare. Thus attired, the stag, with music and 
parade, was carried and placed upon the top of a 
tall tree, with its head and breast turned full toward 
the rising sun. By the king and high-priest — who 
stationed themselves nearest the tree — prayers were 
addressed to this celestial kiminary, and petitions of- 
fered that he would be pleased to reproduce the good 
gifts which were then presented. The members of the 
tribe assembled in a circle, and, at a little remove, re- 
peated these supplications. When they were finished,, 
all having saluted the sun, departed, leaving the 
stuffed and garlanded stag until the recurrence of the 
same season, when, on each ensuing year, similar cere- 
monies were observed/ 

It is probable that some of the larger terraced 
mounds and truncated pyramids were temples erected 
in honor of, and devoted to the worship of the sun. 

Within the historic period idol-worship existed, at 
least to a limited extent, among the Southern Indians. 
We will have occasion, however, in a subsequent chap- 
ter, to consider this interesting subject somewhat at 
length. 

Among the Natchez the machinery of temples, 
idols, priests, keepers of sacred things, and sundry 
religious festivals, was most elaborate. The preserva- 
tion of the eternal fire engaged their utmost solicitude* 
The Sun ruled with despotic power, and seemed in his 
person to unite the privileges of king and high-priest. 
Here were observed more emphatically than among any 
other Southern tribes the distinctions of rank. The 
common jaeople — or Miche-Miche-Quipy (Stinkards) 
— were, to the last degree, submissive to the nobility, 

i u B rev is Narratio/' plate xxv. 



THE SUN AMONG THE NATCHEZ. 



23 



consisting of Suns, nobles, and men of rank. These 
Suns claimed to "be the descendants of the man and 
woman who came down from the sun ; and their chil- 
dren, to the remotest degree, were distinguished above 
the bulk of the nation and enjoyed an exemption 
from capital punishment. By them it was ordained 
that nobility should be transmitted only through the 
women. Upon the death of a Sun, many subjects, 
both male and female, were sacrificed. No greater 
calamity could befall the nation than the extinction of 
the eternal fire. 1 

The great chief of the Natchez bore the appella- 
tion of The Sun. He was succeeded in the kingly 
office by the son of the woman who was most nearly 
related to him. 2 To this woman the title of woman 
chief was given. Great honors were paid to her, al- 
though she meddled not in affairs of state. Like the 
great chief, she possessed the power of life and death 
over the common people, and did not hesitate to order 
her guards to slay any who offended her. 

Every morning, says Father Charlevoix, 3 as soon 
as the sun appears, the great chief comes to the door 
of his cabin, turns himself to the east, and howls 
three times, bowing down to the earth. Then they 
bring him a calumet, which is used only for this pur- 
pose. This he smokes, and blows the smoke of the to- 
bacco first toward the sun, and then toward the other 
three cardinal points. He acknowledges no superior 
other than the sun. From this luminary he claims to 

1 See Du Pratz's "History of Louisiana," vol. ii., chap, iii., sec. 2-4, pp. 170, 
222. London, 1763. 

2 Among the Carolina Indians the succession fell not to the king's son, but to 
his sister's son (Lawson's " History of Carolina," p. 195. London, 1714), and 
it appears that a similar rule obtained among other Southern tribes. 

3 " Voyage to North America," etc., vol. ii., p. 196. Dublin, 1766. 



24 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



derive Iris origin. Over his subjects he exercises un- 
limited power, can dispose at pleasure of their prop- 
erty and lives, and pays no recompense for any labors 
he may demand of them. 

The death of a great chief costs the lives of his 
guards, and sometimes of more than a hundred per- 
sons. At one time very few of the principal personages 
died without being escorted to the country of souls by 
some of their relations, friends, or servants. Suspect- 
ing the death of De Soto, the Cacique of Guachoya 
ordered two well-proportioned young Indian men to be 
brought, saying it was the usage of the country, when 
any lord died, to kill some persons who might accom- 
pany and serve him on the way to the spirit-land. He, 
therefore, ordered their heads to be struck off, and it 
was only after much persuasion, and upon the em- 
phatic statement that the governor was not dead but 
had only gone on a visit to the heavens, attended by a 
suitable number of soldiers, that Luys de Moscoso 
succeeded in effecting the release of these young 
Indians. 1 

The tribes encountered by De Soto during his 
march east of the Mississippi were ruled over by 
caciques to whom their subjects yielded implicit obe- 
dience. The province of Cutifachiqui, however, was 
governed by a cacica who welcomed the Spanish ad- 
venturer right royally, and extended to him the hos- 
pitalities of her kingdom. The stern of her canoe was 
covered with an awning, and she sat upon cushions. 
The country was delightful and fertile, and here were 
found, in the possession of the natives and in the 
barbacoas, large quantities of clothing, and shawls 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando De Soto," translated by Bucking- 
ham .Smith, jl 148. New York, 1866. 



MAUSOLEUM AT TALOMECO. 



25 



made of .fibres of the bark of trees and of feathers 
richly colored in white, gray, vermilion, and yellow, 
suitable for winter wear — well-dressed deer-skins with 
various designs depicted upon them — and many pearls. 
The inhabitants, says the Gentleman of Elvas, were 
brown of skin, well formed and admirably propor- 
tioned. He distinctly affirms that they were more 
civilized than any peoples he had seen in all the terri- 
tories of Florida, and that they wore clothes and shoes. 
To this cacica her subjects paid great respect, and her 
niece was at first commissioned to meet De Soto and 
assure him of the good-will of the queen. Mention is 
also made of the queen-mother, a widow, who, repos- 
ing upon her dignity, refused to hold converse with 
the strangers. 

At Talomeco was a mausoleum a hundred paces in 
length and forty in breadth, with lofty roofs of reed. 
The entrance to this temple was guarded by gigantic 
wooden statues, carved with considerable skill, the 
largest of them being twelve feet high. Armed with 
various weapons, they stood in threatening attitudes 
and with ferocious looks. Within were statues of 
various shapes and sizes. • Around the sepulchre were 
benches upon which, in wooden chests skilfully 
wrought, but without locks or hinges, reposed the 
bodies of the departed caciques, priests, and chieftains 
of Cutifachiqui. Beside these were smaller chests, and 
cane baskets filled with valuable furs, robes of dressed 
skins, and mantles made of the inner rind of trees and 
of a species of grass which, when beaten, closely resem- 
bled flax. There were coverings formed of feathers of 
various colors, which the natives wore in winter. 
This temple also contained great store of pearls. 

Adjacent to this grand sepulchral receptacle were 



26 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

several building's which served as armories. In them 

o 

weapons of various sorts were carefully arranged and 
kept in order by numerous attendants. 1 The erection 
of temples or buildings, and their dedication to the 
preservation of the bodies of their chiefs obtained also 
among other Southern tribes. Thus, in plate xxii. 
of the " Admiranda Narratio," we have a representa- 
tion of one of these sepulchres as it existed among the 
Virginia Indians in the sixteenth century. The ex- 
planatory note is thus quaintly " made in English " by 
Thomas Hariot, servant to Sir Walter Raleigh : 

THE TOMBE OF THEIR WEROWANS OR CHEIFF LORDES. 

" The builde a ScafTolde 9 or 10 foote hihe as is 
expressed in this figure under the tobs of theit Wero- 
ans, or cheefe lordes which they couer with inatts, 
and lai the dead corpses of their weroans thereuppon 
in manner followinge. First the bowells are taken 
forth e. Then layinge down the skinne, they cutt all 
the flesh cleane from the bones, which the drye in 
the sonne, and well clryed the inclose in Matts and 
place at their feete. Then their bones (remaininge 
still fastened together with the ligaments whole and 
vncorrupted) are couered agayne with leather, and 
their carcase fashioned as yf their flesh wear not 
taken away. They lapp eache corps in his owne 
skinne after the same in thus handled, and lay yt in 
his order by the corpses of the other cheef lordes. By 
the dead bodies they sett their idol Kiwasa, whereof 
we spake in the former chapiter. For they are per- 
suaded that the same doth kepe the dead boclyes of 
their cheefe lordes that nothinge may hurt them. 
Moreouer under the foresaid scafTolcle some on of their 

1 Irving's " Conquest of Florida," chapter xlviii. 



TOMBS OF THE VIRGINIA KEN T G3. 



27 



preists hath his loclginge. which Mumbleth his prayers 
night e and clay, and hath charge of the corpses. For 
his bedd he hath two deares skinnes spredd on the 
grownde, yf the wether bee cold hee rnaketh a fyre to 
warnie by withal] . Thes poore soules are thus in- 
structed by natute to renerence their princes euen after 
their death." 1 

Caves were sometimes dedicated to similar uses. 

1 " A Briefe and True Report of the Xew-found-land of Virginia, etc., made 
in English by Thomas Hariot." Plate xxii. and explanatory note. Francoforti ad 
Moenum. De Bry. Anno 1590. 



CHAPTER II. 



Office of the Conjurer or Medicine-man. — Treatment of the Sick. — Medicinal 
Plants. — Towns and Private Houses. — Tenure of Property. — Agricultural 
Pursuits. — Town Plantations and Private Gardens. — Public Granaries.— Ani- 
mal and Vegetable Food. — Mechanical Labors. — Early Mining in Duke's-Creek 
Valley. — Manufacture of Canoes, Pottery, Copper Implements, Gold, Silver, 
shell, and Stone Ornaments. — Various Implements and Articles of Stone, 
Bone, and Wood. — Trade Relations. 

Another important person in every community 
was the Conjurer, who generally united in himself 
the offices of priest, physician, and fortune-teller. He 
was supposed to possess unusual powers because of his 
constant communion with and influence over evil spir- 
its. Various and extravagant were his incantations, 
his charms mysterious and unexplained, and his con- 
tortions, when engaged in the practice of his arts, pro- 
longed and violent. His knowledge of medicinal 
herbs and simples gave him a decided advantage over 
the unlearned. Encouraging the superstitions of his 
patients, he pretended to work wonderful cures, and 
acquired wherever he went an influence most marked 
in its character. In the explanatory note accompany- 
ing plate xx. of the " Brevis Earratio," we are made 
acquainted with several methods adopted by the Flor- 
ida Indians in their treatment of the sick. One rem- 
edy consisted in scarifying the forehead of the patient 
with a shell, and sucking therefrom the blood and hu- 



TKEATMENT OF THE SICK. JAOUNAS. 



29 



mors which were supposed to contain the seeds of the 
disease. Others, suffering from different maladies, 
were compelled to lie upon their stomachs with their 
heads over pans, from which they inhaled, through 
their mouths and nostrils, the fumes of certain medici- 
nal plants in a state of ignition. Tobacco-smoking 
was also employed as a means of expelling disease. 
To Coreal 1 we are indebted for the following inter- 
esting account of the office of the medicine-men among 
the Florida tribes : 

" When they are sick they have not a vein opened, 
according to our practice, but send for their Jaounas 
who are their priests and physicians. The latter suck 
that part of the body which causes the patient the 
greatest pain, and this they do with the mouth, and 
sometimes also by means of a kind of shepherd's flute 
(une espece de chalumeau), after having made a small 
incision near some vein. They also make incisions 
in the suffering parts of those who submit to their 
treatment. Previous to the ceremony, and also after 
the operation, the jaotina utters some words. "Whether , 
the patient dies or recovers, the jaoiina's gravity re- 
mains unaffected. This behavior constitutes a part of 
his professional art. The respect and confidence with 
which the savages regard these men remain the same, 
no matter what the result may be. 

" The jaounas also understand how to make their 
patients vomit by means of a pow^der which they pre- 
pare from calcined shells. One must be a Floridian 
or the devil to resist the violence of this emetic, for I 
doubt whether there exists a more efficient prescrip- 
tion for sending a Eiiropean to the other world. They 

lu Voyages de Francois Coreal, aux hides Occidentals (1660-1697).'' Am- 
sterdam, 1*722. Vol. L, pp. 39-41. 



30 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

also bathe their sick, and when all remedies are ex* 
hausted, and no hope remains, they expose them before 
their cabins to the rising sun, imploring and conjuring 
that luminary to cure them. In all diseases the meth- 
od of treatment (or succession of remedies) is the same. 
They begin by sucking and making incisions, after 
which they resort to bathing, etc., until recovery or 
death occurs. In all these proceedings they preserve 
well their presumption, which they conceal from these 
poor people under an affected modesty and feigned 
abstinence. It is true, however, that they go through 
a rough and long apprenticeship under the old jaoiinas, 
who are the chiefs of the sect, and this doubtless en- 
hances the confidence which the Floridians repose in 
these priests and physicians. These jaoiinas are clad 
in long robes made of various skins cut into unequal 
bands. These robes are fastened by girdles of deer- 
skin, to which they attach their pouches filled with 
herbs. Over the robe they wear, after the fashion of 
a cloak, the hide of some wild animal. Their feet and 
arms are uncovered, and they have on their heads a 
skin cap terminating in a point." 

Of the Virginia conjurers, Hariot 1 says, they use 
strange gestures and are often contrary to Nature in 
their enchantments. They be " verye familiar with 
deuils, of whom they enquier what their enemys doe, 
or other suche thinges. They shaue all their heads 
sauinge their creste, which they weare as other doe, 
and fasten a small black birde aboue one of their ears 
as a badge of their office. They weare nothinge but 
a skinne, which hangeth downe from their gyrdle and 
couereth their priuityes. They weare a bagg by their 

1 " A Briefe and True Report of the New-found-land of Virginia," etc. Franco- 
forti ad Mcenura. De Bry. Anno 1590, plate xi. 



PHYSICIANS AKD CONJUEEKS. 



31 



side. The Inhabitants giue great credit vnto their 
speeche, which oftentimes they finde to bee true." 

The Natchez jugglers not only pretended to cure 
the sick, but also professed to procure rain and sea- 
sons favorable for the fruits of the earth. Their in- 
cantations were often directed to the dispersion of 
clouds and the expulsion of evil spirits from the bod- 
ies of the afflicted. They were a lazy set of fellows, 
imposing upon the credulity of their countrymen, and 
receiving rich rewards when their patients recovered. 1 
The Alibamons reposed great confidence in their doc- 
tors, and regarded the ravings of these quacks and 
cunning impostors as the utterances of a divine lan- 
guage. 2 

Among the Carolina tribes the priests were the 
conjurers and doctors of the nation. 3 The theory was 
that all distempers were caused by evil spirits ; conse- 
quently, none of their physicians attempted to effect a 
cure until he had conversed with the good spirit, and 
ascertained whether his aid could be secured in the 
effort to exorcise the adverse demon. 

" As soon as the Doctor comes into the Cabin," says 
Surveyor-General Lawson, 4 " the sick Person is sat on 
a Mat or Skin, stark-naked, lying on his Back, and all 
uncovered, except some small Trine that covers their 
Nakedness when ripe, otherwise in very young Chil- 
dren, there is nothing about them. In this Manner the 
Patient lies, when the Conjurer appears ; and the King 
of that Nation comes to attend him with a Rattle made 

1 See Charlevoix's "Voyage to North America," etc., vol. ii., p. 203. Dublin, 
1766. 

2 " Travels through Louisiana, by Captain Bossu," vol. i., p. 264. London, 

mi. 

3 Lawson's " History of Carolina," p. 211. London, 1714. 

4 Idem, p. 214. 



32 



ANTIQUITIES CT THE SOUTHEEjS" OTDIAJTS 



of a Gourd with Pease in it. This the King delivers 
into the Doctor's Hand, whilst another brings a Bowl 
of "Water, and sets it down. Then the Doctor begins, 
and utters some few Words very softly ; afterwards he 
smell- of the Patient's Xavel and Belly, and sometimes 
scarifies him a little with a Flint, or an Instrument 
made of Bat tie- Snake's teeth for that Purpose : then 
he sucks the Patient, and gets out a Mouthful of Blood 
and Strum, but S-rum chierly : which, perhaps, maybe 
a better Method in many Cases, than to take away 
great Quantities of Blood, as is commonly practised : 
which he spits in the Bowl of Water. Then he 
begins to mutter and talk apace, and. at last, to cut 
Capers and clap his Hands on his Breech and Sides, till 
he gets into a Sweat, so that a Stranger would think he 
was running mad: now and then sucking the Patient, 
and so. at times, keeps sucking, till he has got a great 
Quantity of very ill-coloured Matter out of the Belly. 
Aims/Breast. Forehead. Temples. ZSTeck. and most Part-, 
still continuing his G-rimaces and antick Postures, which 
are not to be matched in BeJJo. m. At last you will see 
the Doctor all over of a dropping Sweat, and scarce aide 
to utter one Word, having quite spent himself : then he 
will cease for a while, and so begin again till he comes 
in the same pitch of Paving and seeming Madness as 
before, i All this time the sick Body never so much 
as moves, although, doubtless, the Lancing and Sucking 
must be a great Punishment to them : but they cer- 
tainly are the patientest and most steady People 
under any Burden that I ever saw in my Life.') At 
last the Conjurer makes an end. and tells the Patient's 
Friends whether the Person will live or die : and then 
one that waits at this Ceremony takes the Blood away 
( which remains in a Lump in the middle of the Water ). 



MEDICINE— MEN. 



33 



and buries it in the Ground, in a Place unknown to 
any one but he that inters it." 1 " In Medicine, or the 
Nature of Simples" says. Thomas Ash, 2 " some have an 
exquisite knowledge ; and in the Cure of Scorbutic, 
Venereal, and Malignant Distempers, are admirable. 
In all External Diseases they suck the Part affected 
with many Incantations, Pliiltres, and Charms? 

These medicine-men also conjured for stolen goods, 
understood the art of coloring the human hair, cured 
lingering distempers by wrapping a snake around the 
body of the afflicted, treated affections of the spleen 
and of the stomach by hot applications, relieved the 
toothache, administered ample purges through large 
draughts of the Yaupon, comprehended the medicinal 
virtues of the sassafras and many native plants, ap- 
proved of the salutary influences of profuse sweat- 
ing, rubbed with the fat of animals to render the 
limbs pliable, and, when wearied, to relieve pains in 
the joints, administered the juice of the tulip-tree as a 
remedy for pox, and suggested various specifics for dis- 
eases incident to climate and the exposed manner of 
life. 3 

The office of physician among these primitive peo- 
ples, accompanied as it was with authority, notoriety, 
and emolument, was not exempt from danger. Fail- 
ure to effect a cure, in some instances, involved as a 
direct consequence the death of the practitioner. The 
suggestion of such a penalty at this time, for j)rofes- 
sional ignorance or malpractice, would most essentially 
diminish the applications for admission to the degree 

1 Compare Brickell's " Natural History of North Carolina," p. 372. Dublin, 
1737. 

2 " Carolina," etc., p. 35. London, 16S2. 

3 See Lawson's " Carolina," p. 215, et seq. London, 1714 



84 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



of M. D., emphatically thin the ranks of the medical 
fraternity, and entirely extirpate the race of irnpndent 
quacks infesting the country through all its bor- 
ders. 

In the opinion of Mr. Bartram, 1 the Southern In- 
dians, in the treatment of diseases, depended more 
upon regimen and abstinence than they did upon medi- 
cines. 

The Che'rokees used the Lobelia syphilitica, and 
endeavored to conceal from the whites all knowledge 
both of its virtues and of the localities in which it grew. 
A decoction of the Bignonia crucigera and of the roots 
of the china brier and the sassaf ras was freely employed 
for the purification of the blood. The caustic and 
detergent properties of the roots of the white nettle 
(Jatropha urens) were utilized in cleansing old ulcers 
and consuming proud flesh, while the dissolvent and 
diuretant powers of the root of the Convolvulus panda- 
ratios were highly esteemed as a remedy in nephritic 
complaints. The emollient and discutient power of 
the swamp-lily (Saururus cernuus) and the virtues of 
the hypo or may-apple (Podophyllum pelt atnrn) were 
both communicated to the Europeans by the Indians. 

The roots of the Panax ginseng and JVorida, or 
white-root, were held in the highest esteem among the 
Cherokees and Creeks. The virtues of the former are 
well known, and the friendly carminative qualities of 
the latter were constantly invoked for relieving all dis- 
orders of the stomach and intestines. The patient 
chewed the root and swallowed the juice, or smoked it, 
when dry, with tobacco. Even the smell of the root 
exerted a beneficial effect. The Lower Creeks, in whose 

1 " Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians." Transactions of the 
American Ethnological Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 45, e , New York, 1853. 



ANCIENT TOWNS OF ELOKIDA. 



35 



country it did not grow, gladly exchanged two or three 
buckskins for a single root of it. 1 

Of the ancient towns of Florida, De Bry has given 
us several representations. 2 They are all small, circular 
in outline, and defended by stockades. The dwellings 
of chiefs, council-houses, public buildings, granaries, 
and temples, we have considered elsewhere, and it only 
remains for us, in this connection, to notice the charac- 
ter of the cabins occupied by the common people. 
These were confined, inconvenient, and ephemeral in 
their structure. Describing the dwellings of Toalli, 
the Knight of Elvas remarks that they were roofed 
with cane after the fashion of tile. They were kept 
very clean, and their sides, made of clay, looked like 
tapia. Throughout the cold country, he continues, 
every Indian has a winter house, plastered inside and 
out, with a very small door, which is closed at dark. 
Within, a fire is kindled which heats the building like 
an oven and renders clothing during; the nis;ht-trme en- 
tirely unnecessary. The summer-house w T as more open, 
and near it was erected a small kitchen for baking 
bread. Maize was kept in a house with wooden sides, 
raised aloft on four posts, with a cane floor. The 
houses of the principal men or chiefs were larger than 
those of the subjects, and, in front, had deep balconies 
furnished with cane seats. There were also large bar- 
bacoas filled with maize, deer-skins, and the blankets 
of the country — the tribute of the common people to 
their rulers. 3 These private residences were generally 

1 Consult also Adair's "History of the North American Indians/' p. 172, et seq. 
London, 1115. 

2 "Brevis Narratio,*'' etc., plates xxx., xxxi., xxxiii., xl. Francoforti ad 
Mcenum,.anno 1591. 

3 See " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buck 
iiigham Smith, p. 52. New York, 1866. 



36 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

circular in form, their sides made of upright poles, the 
interstices filled with clay, and their tops thatched with 
dry grass, palmetto-leaves, or cane. During the sum- 
mer months but little covering was needed, and the 
light, open summer-houses were frequently roofed sim- 
ply with branches of trees. At a later period the Mus- 
cogulgees built houses much more substantial in their 
character, plastering the walls carefully with red or 
white clay, and ornamenting them with various draw- 
ings of animals, plants, trees, birds, and men. 1 

In the latter part of the sixteenth century the 
houses of the Virginia Indians were made of poles 
fastened at the top and covered either with bark or 
with rush mats. They were from twelve to twenty- 
four yards in length, and about half as broad. Their 
towns consisted of a collection of from ten to thirty 
houses, and were sometimes open, and, in other in- 
stances, were protected by stockades not unlike those 
in use among the Florida tribes. An example of a for- 
tified village is presented in plate xix. of the " Ad- 
miranda Narratio." The town of Secota (plate xx.), 
on the contrary, is entirely unprotected. In the vicin- 
ity of this village are seen fields of maize and tobacco. 
The relative positions of the places of prayer, of feast- 
ing, of dancing, of idol-worship, of the spot where 
the sacred fire is kept burning, of the large building 
wherein are entombed their kings, and the locality 
whence they derived their supply of water, are all 
delineated. When a village was situated at a remove 
from a stream, spring, or lake, the earliest attention 
was paid to digging an artificial pond from which a 
liberal supply of water could at all times be obtained. 



1 Bartram's " Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians." Transactions 
of the American Ethnological Society, vol. Hi., part 1, p. 18. 



WIGWAMS OF THE CAROLINA INDIANS. 



37 



Bibault thus describes a native village on the Flor- 
ida coast : " Their houses be made of wood fitly and 
close ; set upright and covered with reeds, the most 
part of them after the fashion of a pavilion. But 
there was one house among the rest very long and 
broad, with settles about made of reeds, trimly couched 
together, which serve them both for beds and seats ; 
they be of height two foot from the ground, set upon 
great round pillars painted with red, yellow, and blue, 
well and trimly polished." 1 

Perhaps the most minute and satisfactory descrip- 
tion of the dwellings of the Southern Indians is that 
presented by Mr. Lawson. 2 Referring more particu- 
larly to the Carolina tribes, he writes : u These Savages 
live in Wigwams or Cabins built of Bark, which are 
made round like an Oven, to prevent any Damage by 
hard Gales of "Wind. They make the Fire in the mid- 
dle of the House, and have a Hole at the Top of the 
Roof right above the Fire, to let out the Smoke. These 
Dwellings are as hot as Stoves, where the Indians 
sleep and sweat ail Night. The Floors thereof are 
never paved nor swept, so that they have always a 
loose Earth on them. They are often troubled with a 
multitude of Fleas, especially near the Places where 
they dress their Deer-Skins, because that Hair harbors 
them ; yet I never felt any ill, unsavory Smell in their 
Cabins, whereas, should we live in our Houses, as they 
do, we should be poison'd with our own Nastiness ; 
which confirms these Indians to be, as they really are, 
some of the sweetest People in the World. 

" The Bark they make their Cabins withal, is gen- 
erally Cypress, or red or white Cedar ; and sometimes, 

1 " The Whole and True Discoverye of Terra Florida," etc. Prynted at London, 
by Rowland Hall, for Thomas Hackett, 1563. 

5 "History of Carolina," etc., p. 176. London, 1714. 



38 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

when they are a great way from any of these "Woods, 
they make use of Pine-Bark, which is the worser sort. 
In building these Fabricks they get very long Poles of 
Pine, Cedar, Hiccory, or any Wood that will bend ; 
these are the Thickness of the Small of a Man's Leo; 
at the thickest end, which they generally strip of the 
Bark, and warm them well in the Fire, which makes 
them tough and fit to bend ; afterwards they stick the 
thickest ends of them in the Ground, about two Yards 
asunder in a Circular Form, the Distance they design 
the Cabin to be (which is not always round, but some- 
times oval), then they bend the Tops and bring them 
together, and bind their ends with Bark of Trees, that 
is proper for that use, as Elm is, or sometimes the 
Moss that grows on Trees, and is a Yard or two long, 
and never rots ; then they brace them with other Poles 
to make them strong; afterwards cover them all over 
with Bark, so that they are very warm and tight, and 
will keep firm against all the Weathers that blow. 
They have other sorts of Cabins without Windows, 
which are for their Granaries, Skins, and Merchandizes ; 
and others that are covered over head; the rest left 
open for the Air. These have Reed-Hurdles like Ta- 
bles to lie and sit on, in Summer, and serve for pleas- 
ant Banqueting-Houses in the hot Season of the Year. 
The Cabins they dwell in have Benches all round, ex- 
cej>t where the Door stands ; on these they lay Beasts- 
Skins and Mats made of Rushes, whereon they sleep 
and loll. In one of these several Families commonly 
live, though all related to one another." 1 

Compare Adair's " History of the American Indians," p. 417. London, 
1755 ; Bartram's " Travels," pp. 189, 365, 386, et alitcr. London, 1*792. Eo- 
mans's " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," pp. 67,68. New 
York, 1775. Smith's ' : History of Virginia," K'ehmond reprint, 1819, vol. i., p. 130. 



CABINS OF THE GEORGIA INDIANS. 



3D 



Some fifty years subsequent to the time when this 
description was furnished by Mr. Lawson, De Brahm 
thus perpetuated his observations respecting the char- 
acter of the houses used by the Indians on the coast 
of South Carolina and Georgia : " The Indian built 
their houses of posts, on which they lash in and out- 
side canes, and plaster them over with a white clay 
mixed with small pieces of talk, which, in a sun shiny 
day gives to these houses, or rather cottages, a splendor 
of unpolished silver : they are about twelve foot wide, 
and twenty or more foot long, covered with a clap- 
board roof, have no windows, but two doors on the 
opposite sides, sometimes only one door ; the fire place 
is at one end of the house, with two bed states on both 
sides of the fire ; the bed states are made of canes, 
raised from the ground about two foot, and covered 
with bear's skins ; their corn houses are buit in the 
same manner, but raised upon four posts, four and five 
foot high from the ground ; its floor is made of round 
poles on which the corn worms cannot lodge, but fall 
through, and thus the Indians preserve their corn 
from being distroyed by the weevils »a whole year. 
Two or more famelies joine together in building a hot- 
house about thirty foot in diameter, and fifteen foot 
high, in a form of a con^, with poles and tatched, 
without any air hole, except a small door about three 
foot high and eighteen inches wide ; in the center of 
the hot-house they burn fire of well seasoned dry 
wood; round the inside are bedstades fixed to the 
studs which support the middle of each post ; in these 
houses they resort with their children in the winter 
nights. Upon the same plan of these hot-houses (only 
a greater diameter and perpendicul) their town houses 
are built, in which the head men assemble to consult 



40 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



in war, peace, or other concerns ; and every evening 
during; summer all families of the town meet to dance 
and divert themselves." 1 

In the vicinity of the Georgia villages, which were 
usually located upon the banks of streams and in rich 
valleys, the followers of De Soto often found large 
fields of maize, and in some instances artificial lakes 
used as fish-preserves. 

With reference to the tenure of land and prop- 
erty, it may he remarked, generally, that every tribe 
had its boundary-lines, and each nation or confederacy 
its own recognized territorial limits. In the public 
domain, with its rivers, and lakes, and forests, each 
Indian claimed a right of property for the purposes 
of travel, hunting; and fishing. All that a man earned 
or fashioned by his individual labor and industry be- 
longed to himself, and he could dispose of it accord- 
ing to the customs and usages of his people. It was 
his privilege to clear, settle, and plant as much land 
as he chose, within the boundaries of his tribe. 

In villages the right of personal property was 
scrupulously observed, and theft was an uncommon 
occurrence. Every town or community, for the sake 
of convenience, assigned a parcel of land in its vicinity 
for agricultural purposes. 

This was called the " town plantation, 2 where 
every family or citizen had his parcel, or lot, according 
to desire, or convenience, or the largeness of his 
family." These shares were bounded by a strip of 
grass, by poles, or some artificial marks. In ancient 

1 " Documents connected with the History of South Carolina, edited by Plow- 
den Charles Jennett Weston," p. 221. London, 1856. 

2 Bartram's " Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians." Transac- 
tions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 39. 



AGRICULTURAL LABORS. 



41 



times, in these corn-fields there were no fences. Each 
person, however, recognized the limits of his own little 
farm, and refrained from interfering with his neigh- 
bors 7 rights. 1 The entire plantation, therefore, was 
simply a collection of lots, adjacent the one to the 
other, and all embraced in one general enclosure. 
"When the proper season for planting arrived, all the 
inhabitants, as one family, devoted their attention to 
the preparation of the ground and the sowing of the 
seed. In like manner the plants, at proper times, 
were, by common consent, cultivated. These agricul- 
tural labors were superintended by an overseer elected 
or designated annually for that purpose. During the 
periods of special labor his province it was to awaken 
the inhabitants of the town at daybreak with a singu- 
larly loud cry, assemble them with their agricultural 
implements in the public square, and, by sunrise, lead 
them into the fields where the work was commenced, 
and under his supervision prosecuted until evening. 
The women did not march out with the men, but fol- 
lowed in detached parties bearing the provisions of 
the day. " When the fruits of their labors are ripe 
and in fit order to gather in," says Mr. Bartram, " they 
all, on the same day, repair to the plantation ; each 
gathers the produce of his own proper lot, brings it to 
town, and deposits it in his own crib, allotting a cer- 
tain portion for the jDublic granary, which is called the 
king's crib, because its contents are at his disposal, 
though not his private property, but considered as the 
tribute or free contribution of the citizens of the state, 
at the disposal of the king. 

" The design of the common granary is for the wisest 
and best of purposes with respect to their people, i. e., 

1 "Lawson's Carolina," p. 179. London, 1714. 



42 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



a store or resource to repair to in cases of necessity. 
Thus, when a family's private stores fall short, in 
cases of accident or otherwise, they are entitled to as- 
sistance and supply from the public granary, by ap- 
plying to the king. It also serves to aid other towns 
which may be in want, and affords provisions for their 
armies, for travellers, sojourners, etc., etc. Thus the 
mico becomes the provider or father of Ms people." " 
Besides the general plantation, each inhabitant of 
the village enclosed a garden-spot adjoining his cabin, 
in which he cultivated corn and vegetables, upon 
which he subsisted before the general harvest was 
gathered. 

Widows with large families were always assisted 
in planting, working, and gathering their crops. 1 

Throughout the Creek Confederacy there was con- 
tinual and friendly intercourse between the families 
constituting the respective tribes. To their doors 
there were no bolts, and universal, hospitality and 
good feeling prevailed. Ever ready to assist each 
other, and entertaining an abiding friendship, the one 
for the other, the members of the various tribes seemed 
to Mr. Bartram to constitute one great family, holding 
all their possessions in common. Theft was almost 
unknown. 

The animal food of the Southern Indians, at the 
dawn of the historic period, comprised all the wild 
animals native to the region, among which may be 
specially enumerated buffaloes, deer, bears, beavers, 
panthers, raccoons, opossums, wild-cats, rabbits 2 and 

1 Lawson's " History of Carolina," p. 179. London, 1714. 

2 These animals were captured sometimes by means of snares. "Narratives 
of the Career of Hernando de Soto ; " Buckingham Smith's Translation, p. 132. 
New York, 1866. 



ANIMAL FOOD. 



43 



squirrels. These were generally killed with the Low 
and arrow. Certain seasons of the year were set apart 
for hunting, during which large quantities of meat 
were obtained, cured, and housed for future consump- 
tion. Fawns in the womb were esteemed a great deli- 
cacy. All sorts of fishes, turtles, terrapins, oysters, 
clams, fresh-water mussels, conchs, alligators, and even 
some varieties of snakes, were eaten, and much time 
was consumed in the capture of fishes by means of the 
bow and arrow, spears, nets, baskets, and wears. The 
bone liook, and line made of deer-thong, or twisted 
fibre, were used only to a limited extent. Captain 
John Smith 1 asserts that the Virginia Indian women 
spun betwixt their hands and thighs the barks of trees, 
a kind of grass, and deer sinews, out of which they read- 
ily made a very even thread. Out of this thread they 
made garments, nets, and fishing-lines. "Their fish- 
hooks," he continues, " are either a bone grated as they 
noch their arrowes, in the forme of a crooked pinne, 
or of the splinter of a bone tyed to the clift of a little 
sticke, and with the end of the line they tie on the 
bate." Young wasps, white in the comb, were re- 
garded as a dainty morsel. 2 Wild-turkeys, water- 
fowl, and various birds, were eagerly sought after and 
eaten. In a word, there was but little animal life in 
the forests or in the waters of the country which the 
Southern Indian excluded from his food-list. Even 

1 "History of Virginia," Richmond reprint, 1819, vol. i., p. 133. 

2 Lawson's " History of Carolina," p. 178. London, 1714. "Brevis Nar- 
ratio," plates xxiv., xxv., xxvi. Francoforti ad Moenuni, 1591. " Admiranda 
Narratio," plates siii., xiv. Francoforti ad Moenuin, 1590. Ash's " Caro- 
lina," p. 36. London, 1682. Bartram's " Observations on the Creek and Chero- 
kee Indians." Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. iii., 
part i., p. 47. Adair's " History of North American Indians," p. 402, et seq. 
London, 1775. Timberlake's "Memoirs," p. 45. London, 1765. Smith's 
" History of Virginia," Richmond reprint, 1819, vol. i., p. 133. 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



upon dogs did they sometimes subsist. The skins 
of the buffalo, deer, and other animals, were dressed 
and used as clothing. 

Among the vegetables upon which these primitive 
peoples chiefly relied for sustenance, may be mentioned 
Indian corn (maize or zea), wild-potatoes, ground-nuts, 
acorns, walnuts, hickory-nuts, chestnuts, pumpkins, 
melons, gourds, beans, pulse of various sorts, persim- 
mons, peaches, plums, grapes, and mulberries. The 
tuberous roots of the smilax ($ pseudochina) were 
dug up, and, while still fresh and full of juice, were 
chopped up -and macerated well in wooden mortars. 
When thoroughly beaten, this pulpy mass was put 
in earthen vessels containing clean water. Here it 
was stirred with wooden paddles or with the hands. 
The lighter particles, floating upon the top, were 
poured off. A farinaceous matter was left at the bot- 
tom of the vessel ; which, when taken out and dried, 
remained an impalpable powder or farina of a reddish 
color. Boiled in water, this powder formed a beauti- 
ful jelly, which, when sweetened, was both agreeable 
and nourishing;. In combination with corn-flour and 
when fried in fresh bear's-grease it made excellent 
fritters. 1 

Tobacco also was regularly and extensively culti- 
vated. The Southern Indians, especially those resident 
upon the rich valleys of the interior, devoted no little 
time and attention to agriculture. With them maize 
was emphatically the staff of life. Upon its nutritious 
properties they relied both during its milky state and 
when dry. In the latter condition it was often parched, 
pounded, moistened with water, and thus eaten. This 



1 Barbara's " Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Iudians." Transactions 
of the American Ethnological Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 49. New York, 1853. 



USE OF COKN, NUTS, AND SALT. 



45 



was tlie case when tlie party was ou the march or en- 
gaged in hunting. Generally beaten in a mortar, it 
was either boiled for hominy, or, mixed with hickory- 
nut-milk, walnut-oil, or fresh bear's-fat, was baked into 
bread or fried as cakes. In a subsequent chapter upon 
agriculture we will note more carefully the facts con- 
nected ivith the cultivation, preservation, and use of 
the grain which subserved such important purpose in 
the domestic* economy of these peoples. 

Walnuts and hickory-nuts were diligently collected, 
cracked, and boiled in vessels, when the oil which rose 
to the surface was skimmed off and carefully preserved 
in covered earthen jars. This oil was highly esteemed 
in the preparation of their corn-cakes. Of the seeds of 
the sunflower, when pounded, they also made bread. 
The amexias was freely eaten, and ripe persimmons 
were pressed into cakes and stored away for consump- 
tion during the winter months. Grapes were dried in 
the sun and collected in the public granaries and 
private store-houses. Wild-honey was also gathered. 1 

Salt was manufactured by the natives. The Knight 
of Elvas 2 informs us that the natural salt and the sand 
with which it was intermixed were thrown into bas- 
kets made for the purpose. These were large at the 
mouth and small at the bottom, or, in other words, fun- 
nel-shaped. Beneath them — suspended in the air on 
a ridge-pole— vessels were placed. Water was then 
poured upon the admixture of sand and salt. The 

1 Consult " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto, 5 ' etc., translated by 
Buckingham Smith, pp.38, 55, 69, 77, 200-202. New York, 1866. "ABriefe 
and True Report of the New-found Land of 'Virginia," by Thomas Hariot, pp. 
13-16. Francoforti ad Mcenum, 1590. Bossu's "Travels through Louisiana," 
vol. i., p. 22L Lawson's "History of Carolina," p. 207. London, 1714. "Brevis 
Narratio," plates xxi., xxii., xxiii. 

2 "Narratives of the Career of Heruando de Soto," etc., p. 124. New York, 
1866. 



46 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



drippings were strained and boiled on the fire until all 
the water was evaporated, and the salt left in the bot- 
tom of the pots. 

Captain Romans asserts that the Indians never ate 
salt meats or boiled, their food with salt. ^Nevertheless 
they had salt in abundance. When deprived of it for 
a long time, he says an Indian " will frequently eat a 
pound of salt without any thing else." 1 To the saline 
springs of Tennessee and Kentucky the natives con- 
stantly resorted from time immemorial, and in large 
numbers, for the manufacture of this necessary season- 
ing for food. They also obtained rock-salt from nat- 
ural deposits near the mouth of the Mississippi River. 

Of the 3Iechan"ical laboes of the aborigines — aside 
from the construction of their tumuli, fortifications,- 
fish-preserves, temples, public and private houses, and 
places for feasting, dancing, and religious exercises 
— it may be remarked that, in the manufacture of 
pottery, from its most careless expression in small 
terra-cotta pans, or gourd-shaped drinking-cups, to its 
more substantial development in burial-vases, large, 
ornamented cooking-vessels and well-formed jars for 
the preservation of fruits and oils, the Southern Indi- 
ans excelled. They had made further progress in the 
ceramic art than that attained by the Western and 
Northern tribes. Their pottery savored less of the 
archaic type, and in form and ornamentation, as well 
as in smoothness and homogeneousness of composition, 
gave evidence of superior taste and skill. The shapes 
of these fictile wares were also more varied. They 
understood and practised the art of mixing their well 
kneaded clay with pounded shells and gravel, so as 
to impart to the material greater tenacity and dura- 



1 "A Concise Natural H'.story of East and West FloriJa.'' p. 42. New York, 



POTTERY, COPPER IMPLEMENTS, ETC. 



47 



bility. The ornamentation of the rims, necks, and' 
sides of this earthenware was varied, and often tasteful 
and ingenious. The use of the potter's wheel seems 
to have been unknown. To the women was chiefly 
committed the manufacture of this pottery. Soap- 
stone, in many localities, was the favorite material 
from which, by means of flint implements, were fash- 
ioned culinary utensils, both great and small. No 
implements of iron and bronze existed at this early 
period, and copper was used only to a limited extent. 
In its treatment that material was regarded rather in 
the light of a malleable stone, than as a metal. Its 
employment was confined almost exclusively to the 
manufacture of ornamental axes, gorgets, pendants, 
and spindles, or points for piercing pearls. Procured 
in a pure, native state — chiefly from the shores of 
Lake Superior— it was, while cold, hammered out into 
the desired shape. Heat was never applied, and all 
the implements and ornaments of this metal, which we 
have seen, show very plainly a laminated struutcre. 
Comparatively few copper articles have been found 
within the limits of Georgia, and most of these, as we 
shall hereafter observe, were obtained from ancient 
graves in the valleys of the Chattahoochee, the 
Etowah, and the Oostenaula. 

Gold and silver, to a limited extent, were employed 
in the fabrication of ornaments. Small masses of these 
precious metals were picked up by the natives in 
pockets, or gathered in the beds of streams flowing 
through auriferous regions, and perforated and worn 
as pendants. Gold beads — evidently not European in 
their manufacture — rudely hammered into round and 
oval shapes, with holes drill^l through their centres 
or upper portions, have been found in the Etowah 



48 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Valley, in the vicinity of the large mounds on Colonel 
Tumlin's plantation. In this connection, it is proper 
that we allude to the traces of early mining in Chero- 
kee Georgia. 

In 1834, Colonels Merri wether and Lumsden, while 
engaged in digging a canal in Duke's-Creek Valley for 
the purpose of facilitating their mining operations, un- 
earthed a subterranean village consisting of thirty -four 
small cabins, located in a straight line extending up- 
ward of three hundred -feet. They were made of logs 
hewn at the ends and notched down, after the fashion 
of the rude log-huts of the present day. This hewing 
and notching had evidently been done with sharp 
metallic tools, the marks being such as would have 
been caused by a chopping axe. Above these little 
houses — situated from fifty to one hundred yards from 
the principal channel of the creek, and embedded from 
seven to nine feet below the surface of the ground — 
trees were growing from two to three feet in diameter. 1 
The estimated as;e of these trees was somewhat over 
two hundred years. The violent changes often caused, 
in their narrow valleys and along their yielding banks, 
by mountain-streams swollen with rain or engorged by 
the dissolving snows of winter, may account for the 
inhumation of these cabins within a comparatively 
short period after their abandonment. 

In Valley-River Valley, the writer is informed, 8 
eleven old shafts have been found, varying in depth 
from ninety to one hundred feet. In 1854, one of 
them was cleaned out, and at the depth of ninety feet 
the workmen found a windlass of post-oak, well hewn, 

1 White's "Historical Collections of Georgia," p. 487. Stephenson's "Geol- 
ogy and Mineralogy of Georgia," p. 2®6. Atlanta, Ga., 1871. 

2 MS. letter from Dr. Stephenson. 



EVIDENCES OF EAKLY MINING. 



49 



with an incli augur-hole bored through each end. 
Distinct traces appeared where it had been banded 
with iron. The crank and gudgeon-holes were still in 
excellent preservation. Another shaft, for twenty-five 
feet, passed through gneiss-rock. Its sides were 
scarred by the marks of the sharp tools used in for- 
cing a passage through this hard substance. There 
were no signs of blasting. Below the water-level the 
casing-boards and timbers were sound, although dis- 
colored by the sulphurets of copper and iron. 

Six miles southeast of this locality are five other 
shafts similar in ao'e and construction. The trees 
growing in the mouths and upon the edges of these 
abandoned pits were not less than two hundred years 
old. 

The presence of iron and the marks of sharp metal- 
lic tools prove that these ancient mining operations 
cannot be referred to the labors of the Indians. The 
narratives of the career of De Soto are filled with ac- 
counts furnished by the natives of the presence of gold 
in certain designated localities, and their exaggerated 
statements continually inflamed the cupidity of the 
adventurers who accompanied the Adelantado on his 
wild march from Puerto del Espiritu Santo to the 
broad prairies beyond the Mississippi. In plate xli. of 
the " Brevis Narratio " De Bry presents an extravagant 
and evidently imaginary illustration of the manner in 
which the natives gathered gold in the streams issuing 
from the Apalatcy Mountains. These gold and silver- 
bearing mountains — if we rightly interpret the con- 
fused map accompanying the work to which we have 
just alluded — were situated somewhere in or near 
the northeastern part of Georgia. There is every 
reason to believe that De Soto passed through Nacoo- 



50 



ANTIQUITIES OP THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



chee Valley and thence pursued Lis wanderings by way 
of the Oostenaula or Etowah Valley to their conflu- 
ence. There stood the ancient village of Chiaha, and 
there now stands the beautiful town of Rome. 

"While lin^erino; anions the mountains and valleys 
of North Carolina and Georgia, earnest and repeated 
inquiries were made by the Spanish adventurer re- 
specting the existence of precious metals in that region. 
Parties were dispatched by him to examine the coun- 
try and ascertain the precise places where the Indians 
were said to be engaged in ruining. While it does not 
appear from any of the narratives that De Soto and his 
followers actually undertook any mining operations — ■ 
other than perhaps a limited examination of the surface 
of the ground — or that they had with them tools and 
mechanical appliances which would have enabled them 
to have penetrated the bowels of the hills and utilized 
the ores which they contained, it is quite evident that 
they recognized this as an auriferous region and were 
greatly disappointed at their failure to secure a consid- 
erable quantity of the coveted treasure. 

The question still recurs, Who sunk these shafts, 
and, in that early day, expended so much labor in ear- 
nest quest for gold \ Dr. Brinton, in an article pub- 
lished in the Historical Magazine, has collected some 
authorities which suggest a probable response to the 
inquiry. 

So carried away was Luis de Velasco with the rep- 
resentations made by the returned soldiers of De Soto's 
Expedition, with regard to the gold, silver, and pearls 
abounding in the province of" Cosa,' 1 that he dispatched 
his general, Tristan de Luna, to open communication 
with Cosa by the way of Pensacola Bay. Three hun- 

1 First Series, to", t., p. J 3 7. 



EARLY MINING IN NORTHERN GEORGIA. 



51 



dred Spanish soldiers of this expedition penetrated 
quite to the valley of the Coosa, in Northern Georgia^ 
and there passed the sirnxnier of 1560. Juan Pardo 
was subsequently sent by Aviles — the first Governor 
of Florida — to establish a fort at the foot of the moun- 
tains northwest of St. Augustine, in the rjrovince of the 
chief Coaba. It would seem, therefore, that the SjDan- 
iards both knew and endeavored, at this early period, 
to avail themselves of the gold deposits in Upper 
Georgia. The German traveller, Johannes Lederer, 
who visited Xorth Carolina and Virginia in 1669 and 
1670, and wrote an account of his adventures in Latin, 
asserts that the Sj)aniards were then working gold and 
silver mines in the Appalachian Mountains. He avers 
that he saw specimens of the ore among the Western 
tribes, and brought samples of it back with him. 
" Had I had with me," he adds, " half a score of reso- 
lute youths who would have stuck to me, I would have 
pushed on to the Spanish mines." 

In 1690, while making a journey over the " Apala- 
thean Mountains" for inland discovery and trade with 
the natives, Mr. James Moore was informed by the In- 
dians that the Sjjaniards were at work upon mines 
within twenty miles of the place where he then was. 
The Indians described to him the bellows and furnaces 
used by these miners, and offered to conduct him to the 
spot. A difference between himself and his guides, 
however, prevented his visiting these mines. 1 Subse- 
quently Mr. Moore volunteered to lead a party to these 
mines, but the scheme fell through. 

These authorities, if they do no more, intimate that 
in the seventeenth century it was believed that the 

1 " Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society," vol. i., p. 209. Charles- 
ton, 1857. 



52 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" IKDIAXS. 



Spaniards were at work in this region seeking earnestly 
for gold, and enable us to account, with at least some 
degree of probability, for those physical traces of an- 
cient mining observed by the early settlers of Upper 
Georgia — operations of no mean significance, and which 
cannot reasonably be ascribed either to the Indians or 
to the followers of De Soto. 

Returning from this digression, we would state 
that in the manufacture of articles of stone, bone, shell, 
wood, skin, and feathers, the ingenuity and skill of 
the primitive workmen found varied and interesting 
expression. The stone period is here richly repre- 
sented. We have both chipped and polished stone 
irapleinents of unusual diversity, beautiful material, 
and most creditable workmanship. A comparison be- 
tween the tastes and labors of the Southern and North- 
ern Indians in this, as well as in almost every other 
respect, results most favorably to the former. As our 
attention will, in subsequent chapters, be specially 
directed to an examination of these various articles 
and implements, it is necessary here only to allude to 
the existence of spear and arrow points, pipes — plain, 
bird, and animal-shaped — axes grooved and ungrooved, 
perforated and ornamental, chipped and ground- 
gouges, chisels, awls, knives, scrapers, smoothing-stones, 
mortars, pestles, crushing-stones, net-sinkers, tubes, 
pendants, gorgets, pins, sling-stones, discoidal stones, 
nut-stones, images, and numerous other articles. In 
their manufacture, flint, jasper, quartz, chalcedony, 
slate, steatite, hornblende, diorite, greenstone, soap- 
stone, graywacke and hematite were principally em- 
ployed. Great pains were often expended in their 
construction. For their pipes and discoidal stones the 
Cherokees were famous. Many of the axes, and ar- 



PRIMITIVE CANOE UNEARTHED. 



53 



row and spear heads, are marvels of symmetry and 
beauty. The attention of the workers in shell was 
mainly directed to the manufacture of beads, head- 
ornaments, gorgets, armlets, wampum^ pins and per- 
forated . disks. Upon the ornamentation of the gor- 
gets much labor and ingenuity were bestowed. Pearls, 
obtained from salt-water shells and the. fluviatile and 
lacustrine unionidce, were perforated by means of 
heated copper spindles, and strung and worn around 
the neck, arms, wrists, waist and ankles. 

Plates of mica were used as looking-glasses, and 
for the ornamentation of the walls of drinking-cups. 
In the latter case, circular, square, oval, and diamond- 
shaped pieces were pressed in the clay while still soft 
— the edges being slightly embedded. When the ves- 
sel became hard, their retention was insured. 

Boats — some of them large enough to convey forty 
persons — were made of the trunks of trees. The tree 
was felled, cut off at the desired length, and hollowed 
out by fire. Through its agency also, its sides were 
shaped, and both the interior and exterior of the canoe 
scraped and smoothed by means of shells and hand- 
axes or gouges. Bark canoes were seldom if ever 
used. 1 They belong" to colder waters. 



Fig. 1. 




In 1845, while digging a canal on one of the rice- 
plantations, on the Savannah River, located only a 
few miles distant from the city of Savannah, at a 
depth of three feet and a half below the surface of the 

1 Smith's "History of Virginia," vol. i., p. 132. Richmond reprint, 1S19. 



54 ANTIQUITIES OE THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

swamp, the workmen came upon a canoe embedded in 
the soil. It answered to the description of what is 
familiarly known as a dug-out, and had been fashioned 
from the trunk of a cypress- tree (see illustration). 
About eleven feet long and thirty inches wide, its 
depth was scarcely more than ten inches. Both bow 
and stern were strengthened, each by a wooden brace 
kept in position by wooden pins passing through the 
sides of the canoe and entering the braces at either end. 
This boat curved upward at either end, so that the 
bow and stern rose above the middle portion. Lo- 
cated about three feet from the stern was seat nine 
inches wide, consisting of a rude cypress-plank. For 
its reception the sides of the canoe had been notched 
three inches below the gunwales, and it was further 
kept in position by four wooden pins — two on each 
side — driven through the boat and entering the seat at 
either end as in the case of the bow and stern braces. 

The bottom was flat, the sides rounding. No ef- 
fort had been made to form a keel. The bow and 
stern were both pointed, and not unlike in their gen- 
eral outlines, the latter being more blunt than the for- 
mer. At the top the sides were rather more than half 
an inch in thickness — increasing, however, as they 
descended and curved below the water-line. 

When cleaned and dried, this canoe weighed sixty 
pounds, and could be transported with the greatest 
facility by a single individual. The agency of fire had 
obviously been invoked in the construction of this lit- 
tle boat. While there were no marks of sharp cutting- 
tools, the evidence aj3peared conclusive that the charred 
portions of the wood, both within and without, had 
been carefully removed by rude incisive implements, 
probably of shell or stone. The plan of felling the tree 



MANUFACTURE OF ANCIENT CANOES. 



55 



and of hollowing out the log, as perpetuated in one of 
De Bry's illustrations, 1 seems to have been observed in 
this instance. Eegarding the regularity with which 
the outlines and the relative thicknesses of the sides 
of this boat had been preserved, one could but admire 
the care and skill with which that dangerous element, 
fire, had been made subservient to the uses of the 
primitive boat-builder. It is entirely probable that 
the ordinary stone celts, chisels, gouges, scrapers, or 
simple shells, were the only implements at command 
for the removal of the charred surface, as the cypress- 
tree was by degrees converted into the convenient dug- 
out. 

In all likelihood, this scraping was done with a 
shell. Such is the intimation given in an early ac- 
count of the manufacture of canoes by the Virginia 
Indians : " Mira est in Virginia cymbas fabricandi 
ratio ; nam cum ferreis instruments aut aliis nostris 
similibus careant, eas tamen parare norunt nostris non 
minus commodas ad nauiqandum quo lubet per flu- 
inina Sz ad piscandum. Primum arbore aliqua cras- 
sa & alta delecta, pro cymbaa quam parare volunt 
magnitudine, ignem circa eius radices summa tel- 
lure in ambitu struunt ex arbore musco bene re- 
siccato & ligni assulis paulatim ignem excitantes, 
ne flamma altius ascendat & arboris longitudinem 
* minuat. Psene adusta & ruinam miuante arbore, 
nouum suscitant ignem, quern flagrare sinunt donee 
arbor sponte cadat. Adustis deinde arboris fastigio 
<fe ramis vt truncus instam longitudinem retineat, tig- 
nis transuersis supra farcas positis, imponunt, ea alti- 
tudine vt commode laborare possint, tunc cortice con- 
chis quibusdam adempto, integriorem trunci partem 



1 "Admiranda Narratio," plate xii. 



56 



ANTIQUITIES 0E THE SOETHEEX EsDIAXS. 



pro cynibae inferiore parte seruant, in altera parte ig- 
nem secundum trunci longitudinem struunt, prseter- 
quain extremis, quod satis adustum illis videtur, re- 
stincto i^ne c5cliis scabunt, <fc nouo suscitato ipe- 
denuo adurunt, at que ita deinceps pergunt, subinde 
urentes & scabentes, donee eymba necessarium alu- 
eum nacta sit. Sic Domini spiritus rudibus liominibus 
suggerit rationem qua res in suum usum necessarias 
conflcere queant."' 1 

This canoe bad evidently lain for a very long time 
in its present position, and seemed to bare settled 
gradually. There was an accumulation of forty inches 
of mud and soil above it, and around lay the rotting 
trunks, arms, and roots of forest-trees which, during 
the lapse of years, had died and become intermingled 
with the debris of the swamp. Above the spot were 
growing cypress-trees as large and seemingly as old as 
anv in the surrounding forest. 

It is difficult to form a satisfactory estimate of the 
age of this relic. That embedded cypress is, for an 
almost indefinite period, wellnigh indestructible by 
ordinary agencies, is capable of proof. AYe have but 
to instance the salt-marshes along the line of the 
Georgia coast, in not a few of which, at the depth of 
several feet below the surface, may still be found the 
clearly-defined and well-preserved traces of cypress- 
forests, consisting of limbs, trunks, knees, and roots. 9 
In former years, at least some of these salt-marshes 
must have been fresh-water swamps ; and, without the 
violent intervention of some marked convulsion of 
Xature, of which we have no record, and for which no 
plausible reason can be assigned, centuries must have 

1 "Admiranda Narratio" et ctet., plate xii. Franco r orti a j Moenurn. De Bry, 
anno 1590. 



ANTIQUITY OF THE BUFJED CAXOE. 



elapsed before a gradual settling of the coast could 
Lave occurred to such an extent as to have admitted 
the influx of tidal waves converting cypress-swamps 
into extensive, uniform salt-marshes, destroying the 
original growth, and finally covering the fallen forests 
with mud to the depth of several feet. 

We are not aware that a surnciently-accurate rec- 
ord has been kept of the annual deposit of mud from 
the overflowing waters of the Savannah Eiver, to en- 
able us to derive from this source a plausible conject- 
ure as to the age of this canoe. So many uncertain- 
ties enter into calculations of this character, that in 
most instances all attempts to arrive at definite results 
fall far short of satisfactoiy conclusions. All we know 
is, that this Indian canoe is old — older than the barge 
which conveyed Oglethorpe up the Savannah, when 
he first selected the home of the Yamacraws as a site 
for the future commercial metropolis of the colony of 
Georgia — more ancient, probably, than the statelier 
craft which carried the fortunes of the discoverer of 
this Western Continent. 

So far as our information extends, this is the first 
and only well-authenticated instance of the exhuma- 
tion of an ancient canoe in this country. It is in just 
such a locality that we might have anticipated with 
greatest confidence the existence of such a relic. The 
general employment of bark and skin in the manufac- 
ture of their canoes by Northern Indians precludes all 
reasonable hope of finding ancient specimens made of 
such perishable materials. 

The use of the dug-out, like the presence of a stone 
axe, or a jasper arrow-point, tells a true story of the 
art-condition of the people by whom it is made. It is 
the simplest form of water-craft, and evidences the 



53 



ANTIQUITIES OE THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 



first effort in the way of navigation. Hence, among 
barbarous tribes, there is no essential diversity either 
in the shape of these primitive boats or in the meth- 
ods of their construction. 

The 'Andaman-islanders have single-tree canoes 
hollowed out with aj> shaped axe, and in their labors 
are assisted by the action of fire. On the northeast- 
ern coast of Australia, the natives 2 use boats formed 
from a single trunk, hollowed out by fire. The 
Clalan Indians excel in the manufacture of dug-outs 
made from the trunks of cedar-trees. In the days of 
Columbus the natives s of San Salvador fashioned their 
canoes from the trunks of single trees, hollowing them 
out by fire and polishing them with primitive adzes of 
flint or shell. While passing down the Mississippi, 
Hennepin 4 noted the existence, among the natives, of 
"pirogues or heavy wooden canows made of the trunks 
of trees and hollowed out with fire/' 

William Bartram 5 says : " These Indians (of South- 
ern Florida) have large, handsome canoes which they 
form out of the trunks of cypress trees (cupressus dis- 
ticha), some of them commodious enough to accommo- 
date twenty or thirty warriors. In these large canoes 
they descend the river on trading and hunting expedi- 
tions to the sea-coast, neighboring islands and keys, 
Cjuite to the point of Florida, and sometimes cross the 
Gulph, extending their navigations to the Bahama isl- 
ands, and even to Cuba ; a crew of these adventurers 
had just arrived, having returned from Cuba but a few 

1 "Prehistoric Times." Sir J. Lubbock. Second edition. London, 1869, p. 
425. 

2 Idem, p. 429. 

3 Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," second edition, p. 99. London, 1865. 

4 "New Discovery," etc., p. 153. London, 1698. 

5 " Travels," etc., p. 225. London, 1792. 



ANCIENT CANOES. 



59 



clays before our arrival with a cargo of spirituous liq- 
uors, coffee, sugar, aucl tobacco. One of them politely 
presented me with a choice piece of tobacco, which he 
told me he had received from the Governor of Cuba." 

Cabeca de Vaca 1 bears testimony to the presence 
of wooden canoes in use among the Indians whom he 
encountered in his wanderings, but does not allude to 
the manner in which they were made. 

In the narratives of the career of Hernando de Soto 
in the conquest of Florida, as told by the Knight of 
Elvas, and related by Hernandez de Biedma, mention is 
made of canoes of considerable size and ornament, but 
we are not informed as to their precise shape or meth- 
od of construction. They were evidently, however, 
fashioned from the trunks of trees. 

Eibault states that the Florida Indians made 
canoes out of single trees, capable of transporting 
safely fifteen or twenty persons, and that they were 
propelled by short paddles — the rowers standing up- 
right in the boat. 

Lieutenant Tiniberlake, 2 speaking of the canoes in 
use among the Cherokees, writes : " They are generally 
made of a large pine or poplar froin thirty to forty feet 
long, and about two broad, with flat bottoms and 
sides, and both ends alike ; the Indians hollow them 
now (1761) with the tools they get from the Euro- 
peans, but formerly did it by fire." The 3 buried ca- 
noes in the valley of the Clyde were generally formed 
out of a single oak-stem, hollowed out by blunt tools 
— probably stone axes — aided by the action of fire. 

1 See his "Relation," translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 54, el aUter. Now 
York, 1871. 

2 " Memoirs," p. 60. London, 1765. 

3 "Antiquity of Man." Sir Charles Lyell. Third edition, p. 49. London, 
1S63. 



60 



AXTIQUITIES OP THE SOUTHERX IXDIAXS. 



A few were " cut beautifully smooth, evidently with 
metallic tools." " Hence," says Sir Charles Lyell, " a 
gradation could be traced from a pattern of extreme 
rudeness to one showing great mechanical ingenuity." 
Penicaut affirms that the canoes of the Indians of 
Louisiana were made by setting fire to the foot of a 
cypress-tree, the fire continuing in the interior until 
it fell to the ground. " They then burned it off at the 
desired length. "When the tree was burned suffi- 
ciently for their purpose, they extinguished the fire 
with moist earth, and scraped it out with large shells, 
which are very thick. They then wash them with 
water in such a manner as to give them a fine polish. 
These canoes are sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet 
long, but they make of them various lengths according 
to the uses for which they are intended." 1 

From Bossu's " Travels " we extract the following 
account : " Before the French came into Louisiana the 
Indians constructed their boats in the following man- 
ner. They went to the banks of some rivers, which 
are very numerous in this vast region, and which by 
their rapidity tear up by the roots the trees which 
stand on their banks. They took their dimensions 
for length and breadth, and accordingly chose such a 
tree as they wanted ; after which they set fire to it, 
and as the tree burnt on they scrajjed away the live 
coals with a flint or an arrow, and having sufficiently 
hollowed it out, they set it afloat. They are veiy well 
skilled in constructing these little vessels upon their 
lakes and rivers. They employ them in time of war, 
and likewise load them with the furs and dried flesh 
which they bring back from their hunts." 2 

1 See " Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida." French's new series. 
J. Sabin & Sons, New York, 1869. 

2 " Travels through Louisiana," etc., vol. L, pp. 222, 223. London, 1771. 



ANCIENT CANOES. 



61 



Compared with, the boats figured by De Bry, 1 or 
the einbaum of Kobenhausen, or that taken from the 
peat-moor of Mercurango, or that found in the nook 
of Moringen, as represented in Keller's " Lake Dwell- 
ings," the Savannak Eiver canoe is more symmetrical 
and less trough-shaped than them all, and assimilates 
more nearly to the form of the modern canoe. The 
addition of the braces in the bow and stern is unusual, 
and the presence of the seat is by no means custom- 
ary. 

The primitive river-craft of any people, no matter 
how low in the scale of civilization, is interesting, and, 
when the former occupants of the soil have passed 
away, leaving behind them relics at best but few and 
frail, we experience a sense of genuine satisfaction as 
we are thus furnished witk the physical proof of the 
precise manner in which, the Indians of Georgia con- 
structed the light barks in which they committed 
themselves to the waters of the Savannah. This rude 
boat from the Savannah swamp, perhaps the very 
first ancient American canoe which has been un- 
earthed, confirms our conjectures, and substantially 
verifies the earliest and most reliable representations 
whick have been preserved of the Indian canoe of the 
Southern waters. 

Shawls, coverings, and articles of dress, were made 
of feathers, of buffalo, deer, and bear skins, and the 
hides of other animals, and were woven by hand out 
of certain fibres. Fishing lines and nets were formed 
of the inner bark of trees, and convenient mats and 
baskets fashioned with split canes, reeds, and rushes. 

Some of the feather mantles were beautifully 



1 k ' Admiranda Narratio," plates xii., xiii. Francoforti ad Mcenum. Do Bry, 
anno 1590. "Brevis Narratio," plates xxii., xlii. Francoforti ad Mcenum. 
De Bry, anno 1591. 



62 



AXTIQ CITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



wrought, and upon the well-dressed skins of animals 
were depicted various designs. 

Mortars and pestles, bows, spoons, and platters, 
seats or benches, ornamental posts used in dancing, and 
huge images were fashioned of wood. 

Shell-beads answered as a medium of exchange or 
currency. Fire was produced by the vehement collision 
or rubbing together of two sticks. 

They prepared their skins by first soaking them in 
water. The hair was then removed bv the aid of a 
bone or stone scraper. Deer's brains were next dis- 
solved in water, and in this mixture the skins were 
allowed to remain until they became thoroughly satu- 
rated. They were then gently dried, and, while drying, 
were continually worked by hand and scraped with an 
oyster-shell or some suitable stone implement to free 
them from every impurity and render them soft and 
pliable. In order that they might not become hard, 
when exposed to rain, they were cured in smoke, and 
tanned with the bark of trees. Young Indian-corn, 
beaten to a pulp, answered the same purpose as the 
deer's brains. 1 

Laboriously-constructed dams and intricate wears 
were employed in the capture of fish. 

In PAixTTXG- and EOCK-WErxrxo, the efforts of the 
Southern Indians were confined to the fanciful and pro- 
fuse ornamentation of their own persons with various 
colors, in which red, yellow, and black predominated, 
and to marks, signs, and figures, depicted on skins and 
scratched on wood, the shoulder-blade of a buffalo, or 
on stone. The smooth bark of a standing tree or the 
face of a rock was used to commemorate some feat of 

1 " Natural History of Xorth Carolina," etc., by John Brickell, M. D., p. 364. 
Dublin, 1737. Du Pratz's " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 224. London, 1763. 



PAIXTIXG AND EOCK-WEITEXG. 



03 



arms, to indicate the direction and strength of a mili- 
tary expedition, or the solemnization of a treaty of 
peace. High up the perpendicular sides of mountain- 
gorges, and at points apparently inaccessible, save to 
the foAvls of the air, are seen rejjresentations of the sun 
and moon, 1 accompanied by rude characters, the signifi- 
cance of which is frequently unknown to the present 
observer. The motive which incited to the execution 
of work so perilous was, doubtless, religious in its 
character, and directly connected with the worship of 
the sun and his pale consort of the night. 

Coarsely done and barren of interest, this pictog- 
raphy feebly expresses the rudest attempts at imita- 
tion by means of colored chalks and the pointed frag- 
ment of a Hint, Ignorant of phonetic symbols and of 
letters, the ideographic characters which they employed 
were such as are more or less common to all semi- 
barbarians. 2 This primitive system of intaglios and 
picture-writing — designed to convey intelligence and 
record events — was supplemented by the use of wam- 
pum, of which we will speak more at large hereafter. 3 

The art of dyeing feathers, fibres, rushes, and splints 
of cane and wood, as well as the quills of birds and 
animals, to be employed in the manufacture of garments, 
coverings, mats, baskets, and belts, was generally un- 
derstood and practised. 

The trade eelatioxs existing among these primi- 
tive peoples were extensive. The principal articles of 
barter were copper, flint and stone implements, pipes, 

1 Haywood's "Xatural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 113. Nash- 
ville, 1S23. 

2 See Ewbank's " Xorth American Eock-writing," p. 8. Morrisania, X. Y., 1866. 

3 Compare " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," chap, xviii. Wash- 
ington, 1848. " Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Xew York," vol. i., 
p. 57, et sea. Bradford's "American Antiquities," p. 1S2. Xew York, 1S43. 



64 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN?. 

shell- ornaments, pearls, and skins. Galena, obsidian, 
mica, and small masses of native gold and silver also 
formed subjects of merchandise. Between the coast 
and the interior a constant interchange of commodities 
was maintained. The beautiful jasper and flint arrow 
and spear points, stone pipes, discoidal stones, and 
various articles manufactured by the dwellers among 
the mountains, were readily sold to the coast-tribes, 
who gave in exchange for them shells, pearls, and com- 
modities, native to their region, and held in esteem by 
those at a distance. The primitive merchantmen en- 
gaged in this traffic were held in special repute, were 
generously treated, and had at all times safe-conduct 
through the territories even of those who were at war 
with each other. From the same stone grave in Nacoo- 
chee Yalley were taken an ornamental copper axe from 
the shores of Lake Superior, a large cassis from the 
Gulf of Mexico, and stone weapons made of materi- 
als entirely foreign to that locality. The sepulchral 
mounds and relic beds contain articles brought from a 
distance, and very frequently the finest specimens are 
obtained at the farthest remove from the spot whence 
the material used in their manufacture was procured, 
la this circumstance we trace the intervention of the 
merchantman, and his inclination, even at that remote 
period, to find special favor in the eyes of his customers. 

This early commerce among the North American 
Indians is a subject fall of interest, and Prof. C. 
Ran, in his recent article, entitled " Die Tauschverhalt- 
nisse der Eingebornen Nordamerika's," published in 
the first quarterly number of the fifth volume of the 
" Archivfur Anthropologic," has bestowed upon its con- 
sideration much care and research. 



CHAPTER III 



Marriage and Divorce. — Punishment of Adultery. — Costume and Ornaments. — 
Skin-painting and Tattooing.— Manufacture of Carpets, Feather-shawls, and 
Moccasins. — Weaving. 

The customs obtaining anions; the Creeks about 
the close of the last century, with respect to marriage 
and divorce, are thus detailed by Colonel Hawkins : 1 
The suitor never applies in person, but sends his 
sister, mother or other female relative, to the female 
relations of the woman he desires to secure as his wife. 
Brothers and uncles on the maternal side, and some- 
times the father, are consulted, but this is simply a 
matter of compliment, as neither their approval nor 
opposition is of any avail. If the match is regarded 
w r ith favor, a gracious answer is returned to the wom- 
an who made the application. The bridegroom there- 
upon sends a blanket and such articles of clothing as 
he possesses to the females of the bride's family. If 
accepted, the contract of marriage is concluded, and 
he may enter the house of his future wife as soon as 
he chooses. Having built himself a cabin, made a 
crop and gathered it in, hunted and brought home his 
game and placed every thing in the possession of his 

1 " Sketch of the Creek Confederacy." Collections of the Georgia Historical 
Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. T3. Savannah, 1848. 



66 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

wife, the preliminary ceremony ends, and the woman 
is bound. From the time of his first visit to the house 
of the woman until the termination of the ceremony, 
she is completely subject to his will in every particu- 
lar. A man never marries a member of his own tribe. 
Marriage gives the husband no right over the property 
of the wife; and, in case of separation, she keeps the 
children, and all property belonging to them. 

Divorce occurs as a matter of mutual consent, or at 
the choice of either party— the man having the right to 
marry again at will, but the woman, except during the 
continuation of the marriage ceremony, being bound 
until the feasts of the Boosketau of that year are over. 

As a general rule, adultery on the part of the fe- 
male only is punished. . The matter is taken in charge 
by the family or tribe of the husband. The members 
assemble, consult, and determine upon a course of ac- 
tion. If the proof be clear, and they conclude to pun- 
ish the offenders, they divide and proceed to appre- 
hend them. One half goes to the woman's house and 
the remainder to the family house of the adulterer, or 
they all go together to each place if they have so re- 
solved. If the offenders are apprehended, they are 
beaten severely with sticks and then cropped. The 
hair of the woman is carried in triumph to the public 
square. If only one of the offenders be taken, satis- 
faction is had of the nearest relative of the party who 
escaped. If both make their escape, and the family 
or tribe of the husband return home and lay down 
the sticks, the crime is forgiven. One family only, the 
" Wind " (Ho-tul-ul-gee), can take up the sticks a sec- 
ond time. Should the offending parties succeed in ab- 
senting themselves until the Boos-ke-tau is over, they 
are pardoned, because, at that solemn festival, uni- 



ADULTEEY AND ITS PUNISHMENT. 



67 



versal forgiveness is proclaimed for all offences save 
murder. 

In a letter dated the 9th of June, 1733, Mr. Ogle- 
thorpe, speaking of the Indians in the vicinity of Sa- 
vannah, says, " They abhor adultery, and do not ap- 
prove of a plurality of wives." He further states that, 
where adultery had "been committed, the injured hus- 
band was entitled to his revenge by cutting off the 
ears of the adulterer ; and, if physically unable to 
inflict this punishment, he had a right to kill him the 
first time he could do so with safety. The He v. Mr. 
Bolzius 1 records the fact that, on the 26th of March, 
1734, an Indian (probably of the Yamacraw tribe) cut 
off both the ears and the hair of his wife, because she 
had been too familiar with a white man. This he 
avers to have been the usual punishment for adultery 
in vogue among the Indians in Southern Georgia. 

Adultery among the Creeks, during Captain Ko- 
mans's 2 sojourn among them, was punished by severe 
flagellations, and the loss of the hair, nose, and ears of 
both parties. Sometimes the man's nose was spared. 

Of infidelity in the husband no notice seems to 
have been taken, except in cases where he had in- 
fringed upon the vested rights of another of the same 
sex ; and then he was liable only to such punishment 
as the anger or ability of the injured husband might 
lead him to inflict. 

These marriage customs varied with almost every 
nation and tribe. 3 The intervention of a priest to im- 

1 "Extract of the Journals of Mr. Commissary Von Keck," etc., p. 49. London, 
1734. 

2 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," p. 98. New York, 1115. 

3 See Du Pratz's " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 197. London, 1763. 
Bossu's " Travels," etc., vol. i., p. 232. London, 1771. Bartram's " Travels," 
p. 512. .London, 1792. Lawson's " History of Carolina," p. 185. London, 1714. 



68 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



part any tiling like solemnity to the contubernal rela- 
tionship, thus established, appears never to have been 
thought of. The tie — such as it was — originated in 
the fancy of the male, was at first sanctioned by the 
female friends of the woman, and in other cases by 
the cacique or head men of the tribe, and was dissolu- 
ble at the option of either party. 

The Cherokees in the olden time are said to have 
had no laws against adultery. Speaking generally, it 
may be affirmed that the Southern Indians were mo- 
nogamous 1 for the time being. This, however, was 
simply a matter of choice, and not of compulsion. 
The Muscogulges formed a marked exception to this 
rule. "With them polygamy obtained with the utmost 
latitude — the first wife being esteemed the queen or 
superior, and the others her hand-maids and associ- 
ates. 2 While polygamy was allowed among the Creeks, 
Captain Romans 3 declares that it was not usually 
practised. The only ceremonies attendant upon their 
marriages consisted in making some presents to the 
parents of the bride, and in feasting at the hut of the 
wife's father. 

Intermarriages of first cousins was not permitted. 
If an Indian debauched his sister or any very near re- 
lative, his body was burnt and . his ashes thrown into 

Brickell's "Natural History of North Carolina," p. 304. Dublin, 1737. Hay- 
wood's " Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 276. Nashville, 1823. 
Adair's " History of the North American Indians," p. 138. London, 1775. Hen- 
nepin's " Continuation of the New Discovery," chap. xvii. London, 1698. 

1 "Singuli singulas habent uxores," says De Bry. " Regibus autem binas aut 
ternas habere permissum : Sola tamen primum ducta colitur & pro Regina 
agnoscitur." 

" Brevis Narratio," p. 4. Francoforti ad Moenum, anno 1591. Cabeca de 
Vaca says : " Every man has an acknowledged wife. The physicians are allowed 
more freedom; they may have two or three wives, among whom exist the greatest 
friendship and harmony." 

2 Bartram's " Travels," p. 513. London, 1792. 

3 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," p. 97. London, 1775. 



ABSENCE OF MOEALITY. 



09 



the river. He was regarded as unworthy to remain 
upon the earth. Among the Carolina tribes the hus- 
band had a right to sell his wife. He changed his 
wife at pleasure, and had at the same time as many 
wives as he was able to maintain. 1 

Comparatively little virtue existed among the un- 
married women. Their chances of marriage were not 
diminished but rather augmented by the fact that they 
had been great favorites, provided they had avoided 
conception during their years of general pleasure. The 
husband never pretended to recognize any restraint as 
imposed by the marital relation, but indulged his fan- 
cies as inclination prompted or opportunity offered. 
The wife, on the contrary, was deterred, by fear of public 
punishment, from the commission of indiscretions. Al- 
though these marriages were in great measure tempo- 
rary in their character — constituting alliances of fancy 
and convenience — it was not uncommon for parties to 
live together until extreme old age in comparative 
peace and affection. By the side of the aged Mico 
Tomo-chi-chi, as thin and weak, he lies upon his blan- 
ket, hourly expecting the summons of the pale-king, 
we see the sorrowing form of his old wife, Scenauki, 
bending over and fannins; him with a bunch of 
feathers. 2 

In all verity could the Indian husband say of his 
wife, as Petruchio affirmed of Catherine : 

" I will be master of wliat is mine own ; 
She is my goods, my chattels ; she is my house, 
My household stuff, my field, my barn, 
My horse, my ox, my ass, my anything." 

1 Lawson's "History of Carolina," p. 187. London, 1714. 

2 Whitefield's "Journal at Savannah," p. 2. London, 1739. "Historical Sketch 
of Tomo-chi-chi," by Charles C. Jones, Jr., p. 107. Albany, 1868. 



70 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Doomed to perpetual drudgery and to that subor- 
dinate position to which woman is always consigned 
where civilization and religion are not, she was little 
else than a. beast of burden, busied with cooking, the 
manufacture of pottery, mats, baskets, moccasins and 
tunics, a tiller of the ground, a nurse for her own 
children, and at all times a servant to the commands 
and passions of the stronger sex. 

Seldom barren, passing with great ease through the 
perils of childbirth, nourishing her offspring from her 
own breasts, and permitting the child to suck until it 
was well grown, with her own hands attending to every 
want of the infant, and guarding well its cleanliness as 
it lay lashed to its board cradle, it came to pass that 
the Indian mother seldom had a lame or deformed or 
sickly child. At an early age the boys were exercised 
in running, in playing ball, and in the use of the bow 
and arrow. Prizes were offered for which they con- 
tended ; and, while quite young, they were made fami- 
liar with the secrets of hunting and fishing. 1 

Protracted ceremonies involving isolation, fasting, 
purgation, self-denial, and ablution, were religiously 
observed under the personal supervision of the Is-te- 
puc-cau-chau-thluc-co, or great leader, before the Creek 
youth was admitted to the dignity and privileges of 
manhood. Before going to war the young men were 
compelled, by the observance of certain formalities and 
prescribed duties, to prepare themselves to receive the 
war-physic — a charm against all ills. 2 

Of the costume and oenaments of the Southern 

1 " Brevis Xarratio," plate xxxvi. 

2 See Hawkins's " Sketch of the Creek Confederacy." Collections of the Geor- 
gia Historical Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 78. Savannah, 1848. 



COSTUME AKD ORNAMENTS. 



71 



Indians, the following early accounts furnish general 
descriptions : 

As De Soto neared Coca, the cacique came out to 
receive him at the distance of two cross-bow shots 
from the town, borne in a litter on the shoulders of his 
principal men, seated on a cushion and covered with a 
mantle of marten-skins of the size and shape of a wom- 
an's shawl. On his head he wore a diadem of plumes, 
and he was surrounded by many attendants singing 
and playing upon flutes. 

At Quizquiz the great cacique Aquisco, accompa- 
nied by two hundred canoes filled with armed men, 
waited upon him. These warriors were painted with 
ochre, and wore great bunches of white and colored 
plumes. Standing erect in the canoes, they held in 
their hands bows and arrows and also feathered shields 
with which they sheltered the oarsmen on either side. 
The barge conveying the cacique, and those containing 
his attendant chiefs, had awnings at the poop under 
which they sat. The cacica of Cutifachique, when she 
came out of her town to cross the river and extend to 
the Adelantado the hospitalities of her province, was 
borne to the water's edge in a chair. There she en- 
tered her canoe, over the stern of which was spread an 
awning. A mat lay extended in the bottom, and above 
this were two cushions upon which she sat. In the 
boats which escorted her was carried much clothing of 
the country, consisting of shawls and skins. These 
shawls were made, some from the bark of trees and 
others of feathers, white, gray, vermilion and }'ellow, 
rich and suitable for winter. The deer-skins of which 
moccasins, leggings, and coverings were fabricated, were 
well dressed and ornamented with many-colored de- 
signs. The cacica wore strings of pearls, one of which 



72 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



she threw around De Soto's neck, exchanging with 
him " inany gracious words of friendship and cour- 
tesy." 1 

Cabega de Yaca mentions the visit of an Indian 
chief clothed in a painted deer-skin, and borne upon 
the back of another Indian. Multitudes of his people 
attended hirn, some walking in advance and playing 
upon reed flutes. 2 

In plate xxxvii. of the " Brevis Narratio," we have a 
spirited illustration of the litter in which the chosen 
queen is being conveyed to the king. The mat, the 
cushioned seat, the canopy, the long fans of feather, 
the four chair-bearers with the rods resting upon their 
shoulders, and forked sticks carried in the hand to 
serve as supports to the litter when they paused to re- 
fresh themselves upon the journey — the company of 
musicians marching in front, playing upon reed flutes, 
the retinue of female attendants carrying baskets of 
fruits,, and the plumed warriors with javelins in their 
hands bringing up and guarding the rear — are all rep- 
resented with apparent fidelity. 3 

1 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, pp. 62, 75, 103. New York, 1866. 

2 "Relation," etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 31. New York, 1871. 

3 The explanatory text is as follows: "Ducturus uxorem, Rex, cx nobiliorum 
puellarum coetu, pulcerrimam maximamque deligere jubet : deinde duobus ralidis 
longuriis sede aptata, quse rarioris alicujus animalis pelle tecta est, & posteriore 
ejus parte ornata ramis superne nutantibus, ut sedentis caput tegant, Reginam 
delectam sedi imponentes, longurios sublevant quatuor viri robusti & humerissus- 
tiuent, singuli ligneam furcam raanu gerentes, ut longuriis subponant quando qui- 
escendum est; duo alii utrinque ad Reginse latera prcgrediuntur rotunda umbracula 
elegantissime confecta in oblongis baculis gestantes ad Reginam a Solis ardoribus 
tuendam : praeunt alii tubas exarboris cortice confectas inflantes superne angustas, 
inferne laxiores, duobusque dumtaxat foraminibus, supero & infero, prasdita?, qui- 
bus appensse sunt ovales sphserulas aura?, argentae, sereae ad majorem concentum. 
Pone sequuntur puellae omuium formosissima?, eleganter ornatoe torquibus & ar- 
millis ex margaritis, singula? canistrum selectioribus fructibus plenum manu feren- 
tes, & sub umbilicum supraque coxendices cinctae certarum arborum musco ad 
ob. ; ca3na tegendum. Eas sequuntur prsetoriani." 



BLANKETS. SHAWLS. EOBES. 



73 



The use of this primitive palanquin was com- 
manded only by kings, queens, and the most distin- 
guished personages, and seems to have existed chiefly 
among the Florida tribes. 

"While passing through what would now be known 
as Middle Georgia, De Soto observed blankets among 
the natives. These, says the Knight of Elvas, re- 
sembled shawls. Some of them were made from the 
inner bark of trees, and others of a grass 1 resembling 
the nettle, which, when beaten, becomes like flax. 

Women used them for a covering, wearing one about 
the body from the waist downward, and another over 
the shoulder, with the right arm free, after the manner 
of the Gypsies. The men, on the contrary, wore but 
one, which they carried over the shoulder in the same 
way, the loins being covered with a bragueiro of deer- 
skin, after the style of the woollen breech-doth once 
the fashion in Spain. " The skins," continues the re- 
lator, " are well dressed — the color being given to them 
that is wished — and in such perfection that when of 
vermilion they look like very fine red broadcloth ; 
and when black — the sort in use for shoes-^-they are 
of the purest. The same hues are given to blankets." 2 

Cabega de Vaca 3 describes mantelets of thread 
with which the women partially covered their persons. 

The most elaborate robe is that depicted in plate 
xxxix. of the " Brevis Narratio," upon the person of 
the king as he walks abroad attended by his queen. 
This is said to have been made of the skin of the stag:, 
elegantly prepared and elaborately ornamented with 
various colors. It is confined in a prominent bow or 

1 Evidently the reference is to silk-grass, so common in this region. 

2 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," etc., translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith, p. 53. New York, 1866. 

3 "Relation," etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 35. New York, 1ST1 . 



74 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEX INDIANS. 



knot resting on the top of the right shoulder, and 
thence falling over the left hip, is supported behind 
by a train-bearer. The arms and legs are bare. A cap 
is upon the king's head ; his ears are ornamented with 
inflated fish-bladders; his elbows, wrists, and knees, 
are encircled by beads of shells and pearls, while from 
the left shoulder depend three strings of beads of like 
material reaching down as far as the right hip, cross- 
ing the breast and stomach transversely. Aside from 
her necklace, armlets, and anklets of pearls, and her 
ear- ornaments, his queen-consort is devoid of every 
covering save the female breech-clout, which differed 
from that worn by the men in that it encircled the 
hips, or depended from one shoulder, passing trans- 
versely below the navel and across the opposite hip, 
thus in each instance covering the person only in its 
most secret parts. Made of moss, it was more flowing 
and graceful than the naked flap and band used by 
the men to conceal their privates. 

With the exception of these breech- clouts, the 
Florida Indians, most of the year, appeared in a state 
of nudity. The cold of winter necessitated the use of 
shawls and blankets, to which reference has already 
been made. 

The warriors wore no artificial protection 1 for 
their bodies, but contented themselves with the most 
fanciful head-ornaments, and with personal decora- 
tions. So painted and ochred were their bodies, legs, 
and arms, with red, black, white, yellow and vermilion 
stripes, that, in the eyes of the Gentleman of Elvas, 
these primitive men-at-arms appeared to have on 
stpckings and doublets. Some wore feathers and 



1 Captain Smith says the Virginia warriors carried round targets made of the 
bark of trees. "History of Virginia," vol. i., p. 132. Richmond, 1819. 



TATTOOING AND SKIN-PAINTING. 



others horns on their heads. Their faces were black- 
ened and the eyes encircled with vermilion to heighten 
their fierce aspect. 1 

Children were permitted to go about in an entirely- 
nude condition until, at their own suggestion, hav- 
ing attained, the age of puberty, they put on the 
breech-clout. The male breech-clout is thus described 
by De Bry : " Obsccenas partes tegunt cervina pelle 
eleganter parata." 

The custom of tattooing existed. " Maxima illo- 
rum pars corpus, brachia, femora pingit elegantibus & 
concinnis figuris quarum color numquam obliteratur: 
in ipsa enim cute sunt impressge notse sive puncturse." 
Captain Kibault's account of the attire of the Florida 
Indians is as follows : " The most part of them cover 
their reins and private parts with fair hart's skinns, 
painted most commonly with sundry colors ; and the 
fore-part of their bodies and arms be painted with 
pretty devised works of azure, red and black, so well 
and so properly, that the best painter in Europe could 
not amend it. The women have their bodies paintett 
with a certain herbe like unto morse, whereof the 
cedar trees, and all other trees, be always covered. 
The men for pleasure do always twine themselves 
therewith after sundry fashions. They be of tawny 
color, hawk-nosed, and of a pleasant countenance." 2 

The coast Indians are represented to have used less 
covering than the tribes of the interior. The farther 
south we observe them, during the warm months of 
the year, the more scanty seems the attire. A com- 

1 " Narratives of the Career of De Soto," etc., p. 99. New York, 1866. Com- 
pare plate xiv., " Brevis Narratio." Francoforti ad Moenum, De Bry, anno 1591. 

s 2 " The Whole and True Discovery e of Terra Florida," etc., written in Freuche 
by Captaine Ribaulde, etc., and now newly set forth in the English, the xxx of 
May, 1563. Prynted at London by Rowland Hall, for Thomas Hackett. 



7 6 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

parison of the plates illustrative of the " Admiranda 
Xarratio," with those contained in the " Brevis Xar- 
ratio," confirms this assertion. Even kings and chief- 
men amonof the Florida tribes mingled with their head 
warriors upon occasions of state and general delibera- 
tion, with nothing about their persons save the wretched 
breech-clout. 1 Among the common people even this 
was often lacking. 

Of the vesture of the Virginia Indians Hariot 
writes : " They are a people clothed with loose mantles 
made of deere skins, & aprons of the same, rounde 
about their middles ; all els naked." 2 In the accom- 
panying plates 3 we are made acquainted with the dis- 
tinctive shapes of the female tunic, the priest's cloak 
fashioned of quilted rabbit-skins, the aprons and tu- 
nics worn by chiefs, the long winter garments of old 
men, dressed with the hair on and lined inside with 
furs, the scanty covering of the conjurer, and the small 
breech-clout of the boat-maker and fisherman. The 
following interesting account of the clothing of the 
Virginia Indians is borrowed from that valuable 
work, " The True Travels, Adventures and Observa- 
tions of Captaine John Smith : " 4 " For their apparell 
they are sometimes covered with the skinnes of wilde 
beasts, which in Winter are dressed with the hayre, 
but in Summer without. The better sort vse large 
mantels of Deare skins, not much differing in fashion 
from the Irish mantels. Some imbroidered with white 
beads, some with Copper, other painted after their 
manner. But the common sort haue scarce to cover 

1 Plates xi., xii., xvi., xviii., xxix., xxxiii., " Brevis Narrat.io." 

2 "A Briefe and True Report of the New-Found Land of Virginia," etc., p. 24. 
Francoforti ad Moenum, 1590. 

3 iv., v., vi., viii., ix., xii., xiii., xvi., xviii. 

4 Richmond reprint, 1819, vol. i., p. 129. 



ATTIRE OF VIRGINIA INDIANS. 



77 



their nakednesse but with grasse, the leaues of trees 
or such like. We haue seene some vse mantels made 
of Turky feathers, so prettily wrought and woven 
with threads, that nothing could be discerned but the 
feathers. That was exceeding warme and very hand- 
some. But the women are alwayes covered about their 
middles with a skin, and very shamefast to be seene 
bare. They adorne themselues most with copper beads 
and paintings. Their women, some haue their legs, 
hands, breasts and face cunningly imbrodered with 
divers workes as beasts, serpents, artificially wrought 
into their flesh with blacke spots. In each eare com- 
monly they haue 3 great holes, whereat they hang 
chaines, bracelets, or copper. Some of their men weare 
in those holes a small greene and yellow coloured 
snake, neare halfe a yard in length, which, crawling 
and lapping her selfe about his necke, oftentimes famil- 
iarly would kisse his lips. Others weare a dead Eat 
tyed by the taile. Some on their heads weare the 
wins; of a bird or some large feather with a Eat- 
tell. Those Kattels are somewhat like the chape of a 
Rapier, but lesse, which they take from the taile of a 
snake. Many haue the whole skinne of a Hawke or 
some strange foule, stuffed with the wings abroad. 
Others a broad peece of Copper, and some the hand of 
their enemy dryed. Their heads and shoulders are 
painted red with the roote Pocone brayed to powder, 
mixed with oyle, this they hold in sommer to preserue 
them from the heate, and in winter from the cold. 
Many other formes of paintings they vse, but he is the 
most gallant that is the most monstrous to behold." 

The shoes of the natives were made of buckskin, 
reinforced at the bottom. They were fastened on with 
running strings, the skin being drawn together like 



78 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

a purse, on the top of the foot, and tied round the 
ankle. 1 

During the summer the Louisiana Indians wore 
but little clothing — that of the men consisting of a 
small apron of deer-skin dressed white or dyed black, 
the latter color being reserved exclusively for the 
chiefs. The cloaks of the women were made of the 
bark of the mulberry-tree, or of the feathers of swans, 
turkeys, and ducks. The bark of young mulberry- 
shoots was first dried in the sun, and then beaten so as 
to cause all the woody parts to fall off. The remaining 
threads were then beaten a second time, and bleached 
by exposure to the dew. When well whitened, they 
were spun or twisted into thread. Garments w r ere 
woven in the following manner. Two stakes were 
planted in the ground about a yard and a half apart. 
A cord was then stretched from the one to the other, 
to which w^ere fastened double threads of bark. By 
hand other threads were curiously interwoven, so as in 
the end to form a cloak about a yard square, with 
wrought borders round the edges. 

Young boys and girls went quite naked. At the 
age of eight or ten years the girls put on a little 
fringed petticoat made of threads of mulberry-bark. 
The boys remained uncovered until they attained a 
similar age. 

" Some women," says Du Pratz, 2 " even in hot 
weather, have a small cloak wrapt round like a waist- 
coat ; but when the cold sets in they wear a second, 
the middle of which passes under the right arm, and 
the two ends are fastened over the left shoulder, so 



1 Beverly's "History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chap, i., p. 3- 
London, 1*705. 

2 "History of Louisiana," etc., vol. ii., p. 231. London, 1763. 



DEESS OF LOUISIANA INDIANS. 



79 



that the two arms are at liberty and one of the breasts 
is covered. They wear nothing on their heads ; their 
hair is suffered to grow to its full length, except in the 
fore-part, and it is tied in a cue behind in a kind of 
net made of mulberry threads. They carefully pick 
out all the hairs that grow upon any part of their 
body." 

The shoes of the men and women were fashioned 
after the same pattern, and were seldom worn except 
uj)on a journey. They were made of deer-skin, the 
sole and tipper leather being of the same piece, and 
sewed together on the upper part of the foot. The 
moccasin was cut about three inches longer than the 
foot, and folded over the toes. The quarters were 
about nine inches high, and fastened round the leg like 
a buskin. Ear-rings of shell, and necklaces "com- 
posed of several strings of longish or roundish kernel- 
stones, somewhat resembling porcelaine " formed the 
customary female ornaments. With the smallest of 
these " kernel-stones " they decorated their furs ? gar- 
ters, and shoes. In early youth, females were tattooed 
across the nose and often dow r n the middle of the chin. 
Some were pricked all over the upper part of the 
body, not excepting from the operation even their sen- 
sitive breasts. 

During the winter the men covered themselves 
with a shirt made of two dressed deer-skins, and wore 
breeches of the same material, which protected the 
legs. In severe weather a buffalo-skin, dressed with 
the wool on, was kept next the body to increase the 
w r armth. 

The young men were very fond of dress, vying 
with each other in the decorations upon their vest- 
ments, painting themselves profusely with vermilion, 



80 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



wearing bracelets of the ribs of deer — softened in 
boiling water, then bent into the required shape, and 
finally polished so that they resembled ivory — fan- 
cying necklaces like the women, carrying fans in 
their hands, clipping off the hair from the crowns of 
their heads and substituting a piece of swan's-skin 
with the down upon it, fastening the finest white 
feathers to the hairs which remained, and suffering 
a part of their hair to grow long, so that they could 
weave it into a cue hanging over the left ear. Such is 
the portrait which has been preserved of the Louisiana 
youthful swells, more than a hundred years ago. 

Warriors who had rendered themselves famous by 
some gallant exj)loit, caused a tomahawk to be pricked 
on the left shoulder. Underneath was indelibly im- 
printed the hieroglyphic sign of the conquered nation. 
The figure intended to be pricked was first drawn on 
the skin, which was then punctured to the depth of 
the tenth of an inch, and powdered charcoal rubbed in. 
Marks thus caused were never effaced. Ear-rings were 
worn by the men ; and, fastened to their belts, might 
be seen gourds with pebbles in them. 

The chief ornament of the king was a crown of 
feathers surmounting a black bonnet of net-work fast- 
ened to a red diadem, about two inches broad, em- 
broidered with kernel-stones. The feathers were 
white, about eight inches tall in front and half as high 
behind. The women fabricated girdles, garters, and 
collars for carrying burdens. They also embroidered 
with porcupine-feathers. 

Of the habit of the North Carolina Indians, Mr. 
Lawson 1 writes : The winter dress of the women is " a 
hairy Match-coat in the nature of a Plad. . . At other 

1 "History of Carolina," etc., p. 190. London, 1714. 



ATTIRE OF CAROLINA INDIANS. 



81 



times they have only a sort of Flap or Apron contain- 
ing two Yards in Length and better than half a Yard 
deep. Sometimes it is a Deer-Skin dress' d white, and 
pointed or slit at the bottom, like Fringe. When this 
is clean, it becomes them very well. . . . 

" All of them, when ripe, have a small String round 
the Waste, to which another is tied and comes between 
their Legs, where always is a Wad of Moss against the 
Os pubis ; but never any Hair is there to be found. 
Sometimes they wear Indian Shooes or Moggizons, 
which are made after the same manner as the Mens are. 

" The Hair of their Heads is made into a long Eoll 
like a Horses Tail, and bound round with JRonoah or 
Porcelain which is a sort of Beads they make of the 
Conk-Shells. Others that have not this, make a Leather- 
String serve. The Indian Men have a Match-coat of 
Hair, Furs, Feathers, or Cloth, as the Women have. 
Their Hair is roll'd up on each Ear, as the Womens, 
only much shorter, and oftentimes a Roll on the Crown 
of the Head or Temples, which is just as they fancy; 
there being no Strictness in their Dress. Betwixt their 
Legs comes a Piece of Cloth, 1 that is tuck'd in by a 
Belt both before and behind. This is to hide their 
Nakedness. . . . They wear Shooes of Bucks, and some- 
times Bears Skin, which they tan in an Hour or two, 
with the Bark of Trees boil'd, wherein they put the 
Leather whilst hot, and let it remain a little while, 
whereby it becomes so qualify' d as to endure Water 
and Dirt without growing hard. These have no Heels, 
and are made as fit for the Feet, as a Glove is for the 
Hand, and are very easie to travel in when one is a lit- 
tle us'd to them. . . . Their Feather Match-coats are 
very pretty, especially some of them which are made ex- 

1 Or wad of moss. Lawson, p. 203. 

6 



82 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

traordinary charming, containing several pretty Figures 
wrought in Feathers, making them seem like a fine 
Flower Silk-Shag ; and when new and fresh, they be- 
come a Bed very well, instead of a Quilt. Some of 
another sort are made of Hare, Raccoon, Bever or Squir- 
rel-Skins, which are very warm. Others again are 
made of the green Part of the Skin of a Mallard's Head, 
which they sew perfectly well together, their Thread 
being either the Sinews of a Deer divided very small, 
or Silk-Grass. When these are finished they look very 
finely, though they must needs be very troublesome to 
make. . . . Their Dress in Peace and War is quite dif- 
ferent. Besides, when they go to War, their Hair is 
comb'd out by the Women, and done over very much 
with Bears Grease and red Root; with Feathers, 
Wings, Rings, Copper and Peak or Wampum in their 
Ears. Moreover, they buy Vermillion of the Indian 
Traders, wherewith they paint their Faces all over red, 
and commonly make a Circle of Black about one Eye, 
and another Circle of White about the other, whilst 
others bedawb their Faces with Tobacco-Pipe Clay, 
Lamp-black, black Lead and divers other Colours which 
they make with the several sorts of Minerals and Earths 
that they get in different Parts of the Country where 
they hunt and travel. When these Creatures are thus 
painted, they make the most frightful Figures that can 
be imitated by Men, and seem more like Devils than 
Humane Creatures. You may be sure that they are 
about some Mischief, when you see them thus painted ; 
for in all the Hostilities which have ever been acted 
against the English at any time, in several of the Plan- 
tations of America, the Savages always appear' d in this 
Disguize, whereby they might never after be discover' d 
or known by any of the Christians that should happen 



ORNAMENTS OF CAROLINA INDIANS. 83 

to see them after they had made their Escape ; for it is 
impossible ever to know an Indian under these Colours, 
although he has been at your House a thousand times, 
and you know him at other times as well as you do 
any Person living. As for their Women, they never 
use auy Paint on their Faces. . . . 

" Some of the Indians wear great Bobs in their 
Ears, and sometimes in the Holes thereof they put 
Eagles and other Birds Feathers for a Trophy. When 
they kill any Fowl, they commonly pluck off the 
downy Feathers and stick them all over their Heads. 
Some (both Men and Women) wear great Necklaces of 
their Money, made of Shells. , . . They oftentimes 
make of this Shell a sort of Gorge, which they wear 
about their Neck in a String ; so it hangs on their Col- 
lar, whereon sometimes is engraven a Cross, or some 
odd sort of Figure which comes next in their Fancy." 1 

De Brahm 2 asserts that the South Carolina tribes, 
about the middle of the last century, had, among 
themselves, no distinction of dress. They painted 
their faces red in token of friendship, and black, in 
expression of warlike intentions. In common with 
their more northern and southern neighbors they or- 
namented their hair, ears, and necks with feathers, 
bobs and beads, wore mantles and breech-cloths, and 
used leather macksins. " Their cloathing," says Thom- 
as Ash, consists of the " Skins of the Bear and Deer, 
the Skin drest after their Country Fashion, sometimes 
with black and red Chequers coloured." 3 

Captain Bernard Bomans observed cloth made out 

1 Compare "Natural History of North Carolina," etc., by the wonderful plagia- 
rist, John Brickell, M. D., p. 312, et seq. Dublin, 1*737. 

2 " Documents connected with the History of South Carolina," edited by Flow- 
den Charles Jennett Weston, p. 220. London, 1856. 

3 " Carolina," etc., by T. A.—, Gent., p. 35. Loudon, 1682. 



84 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



of the hark of a species of Moms, the root of the 
tree being used to dye it yellow. " Buffaloe's wool," 
he acids, " furnishes a material for a useful manufac- 
ture. They likewise make blankets and other cover- 
ings out of the feathers of the breasts of wild turkies by 
a process similar to that of our wig-makers when they 
knit hair together for the purpose of making wigs, " 1 
During the spring of 1811, embedded in the flooring 
of a copperas cave, in Warren County, West Tennessee, 
two human bodies — the one male and the other female 
— were found. They were evidently Indians, and had 
been interred in curiously -wrought baskets made of 
cane, with coverings of the same material fitting over 
their tops. " The flesh of these persons," says Mr. Hay- 
wood, 2 " was entire and undecayecl, of a brown, dry- 
ish colour produced by time, the flesh having adhered 
closely to the bones and sinews. Around the female, 
next her body, was placed a well-dressed deer skin. 
Next to this was placed a rug, very curiously wrought, 
of the bark of a tree and feathers. The bark seemed 
to have been formed of small strands, well twisted. 
Around each of these strands feathers were rolled, 
and the whole woven into a cloth of firm texture after 
the manner of our common coarse fabrics. This rus* 
was about three feet wide and between six and seven 
feet in length. The whole of the ligaments thus 
framed of bark were completely covered by the feath- 
ers, forming a body of about one-eighth of an inch in 
thickness, the feathers extending about one-quarter of 
an inch in length from the strand to which they were 
confined. The appearance was highly diversified by 

1 " A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," p. 85. New York, 

2 "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 164, Nashville, 1823. 



HUMAN BODIES IN A CAVE IN TENNESSEE. 85 

green, blue, yellow and black, presenting different 
shades of color when reflected upon by the light in dif- 
ferent positions. The next covering was an undressed 
deer skin, around which was rolled, in good order, a 
plain shroud manufactured after the same order as 
the one ornamented with feathers. This article re- 
sembled very much in its texture the bags generally 
used for the purpose of holding coffee exported from 
the Havanna to the United States. The female had in 
her hand a fan formed of the tail feathers of a turkey. 
The points of these feathers were curiously bound by 
a buckskin string, well dressed, and were thus closely 
bound for about one inch from the points. About 
three inches from the point they were again bound by 
another deer skin string, in such a manner that the fan 
might be closed and expanded at pleasure. Between 
the feathers and this last binding by the string, were 
placed, around each feather, hairs which seem to have 
been taken from the tail of a deer. This hair was 
dyed of a deep scarlet red, and was one- third, at least, 
longer than the hairs of deer's tail in this climate gen- 
erally are. 

The male was interred sitting in a basket, after the 
same manner as the former, with this exception, that 
he had no feathered rug, neither had he a fan in 
his hand. The hair, which still remained on their 
heads, was entire. That of the female was of a yel- 
low cast, and of a very fine texture. . . . The fe- 
male was, when she deceased, of about the age of 
fourteen. The male was somewhat younger. The 
cave in which they were found abounded in nitre, 
copperas, alum and salts. The whole of this covering, 
with the baskets, was perfectly sound, without any 
marks of decay." 



86 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Thus have the conserving properties of the dust of 
this cave guarded from disintegration not only the 
forms, but even the clothing of these primitive peo- 
ples, offering them almost unchanged for the inspec- 
tion of a later and not incurious age, placing in our 
hands the fabrics they wove, the skins they dressed, 
the colors and fans in which they delighted, and 
affording physical confirmation of the fidelity of at 
least some of the accounts furnished by the early ob- 
servers. 

Referring to the tribes then occupying the territory 
granted to the colony of Georgia, Mr. Oglethorpe, 
shortly after the settlement of Savannah, declares that 
" they, as the ancient Germans did, anoint with oil and 
expose themselves to the sun, which occasions their 
skins to be brown of color. The men paint them- 
selves of various colors, red, blue, yellow and black. 
The men wear generally a girdle with a piece of cloth 
drawn through their legs and turned over the girdle 
both before and behind, so as to hide their nakedness. 
The women wear a kind of petticoat to the knees. 
Both men and women in the winter wear mantles 
something less than two yards square, which they 
wrap round their bodies as the Romans did their toga, 
generally keeping their arms bare ; they are sometimes 
of woollen bought of the English, sometimes of furs 
which they dress themselves. They wear a kind of 
pumps which they call moccasins, made of deer skin, 
which they dress for that purpose." 1 

"Formerly," says Adair, 2 "the Indians made very 
handsome carpets. They have a wild hemp that 
grows about six feet high in open, rich, level lands, 

1 Salmon's "Modern History," fourth edition, vol. ill . , p. 770. 
" History of the American Indians," p. 422. London, 11 75. 



SPINNING AND WEAVING. 



and which usually ripens in July ; it is plenty on our 
frontier settlements. When it is fit for use, they pull, 
steep, peel and beat it ; and the old women spin it off 
the distaffs with wooden machines, having some clay 
on the middle of them to hasten the motion. When 
the coarse thread is prepared, they put it into a frame 
about six feet square, and, instead of a shuttle, they 
thrust through the thread with a long cane, having a 
large string through the web, which they shift at 
every second course of the thread. When they have 
thus finished their arduous labour, they paint each 
side of the carpet with such figures of various colours 
as their fruitful imaginations devise; particularly the 
images of those birds and beasts they are acquainted 
with ; and likewis eof themselves, acting in their social 
and martial stations." He was informed that the 
Muscogees, time out of mind, passed the woof with a 
shuttle, " having a couple of threcldles which they 
move with the hand so as to enable them to make 
good dispatch, something after our manner of weav- 
ing." The women were the manufacturers of these 
fabrics. Buffalo's wool was extensively used for spin- 
ning and weaving. The Choctaws made "turkey- 
feather blankets with the long; feathers of the neck 
and breast of that large fowl." The inner end of the 
feather was twisted and made fast in a strong double 
thread of hemp or coarse twine made of the inner 
bark of the mulberry-tree. These threads were then 
worked together after the manner of a fine netting. 
The long and glittering feathers imparted to the out- 
side of the blanket a pleasing appearance. Such fab- 
rics were quite warm. This writer also confirms the 



88 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



use of breech-cloths, short petticoats, moccasins, and 
head-ornaments of feathers. 1 

Various clays, and the juices of roots, barks, "berries 
and plants, were employed in painting their persons 
and dyeing their manufactures. Tassels of the hair of 
deer, colored red, were held in special esteem. 2 

Not only were the ears slit for the reception of in- 
flated bladders, eagles' claws, feathers and various 
ornamental pendants, but in some instances the nip- 
ples and under lips were bored so that canes and other 
matters for personal adornment might be introduced 
and worn. 3 The nose was perforated to admit of the 
suspension of ornaments from the cartilaginous wall 
which separates the nostrils. It would appear that 
lip-stones (called by the Spanish bezote and by the 
Mexicans teutetl) were worn, at least to a limited 
extent. 

Without multiplying these references, we are suffi- 
ciently assured of the fact that, in the ornamentation 
of their skins, in the manufacture of shell, stone, bone, 
wood, hair, and feather pendants, and in the fabrica- 
tion of skin garments fringed and curiously colored, 
and of carpets and shawls made of fibre and feathers, a 
marked similarity existed among the Southern tribes. 
It is also evident that the manner of wearing these 
articles of clothing and of personal adornment was, in 
its general features, common to them all. We per- 
ceive that these Indians had advanced beyond that 
rudest stage when the undressed hide — stripped from 
the body of the slain wild animal and thrown around 

Compare " Bartrarn's Travels," pp. 499-502. London, 179 2. Hennepin's 
" Continuation of the New Discovery," p. 79. London, 1698. 

2 " Relation of Cabeca de Vaca," p. 86. New York, 1871. 

3 Ibid., pp. 75-78. New York, 1871. 



EUKOPEAN FABEICS EAGEELY SOUGHT. 89 

the shoulders— constituted the only protection against 
the inclement seasons, and that, in the manufacture of 
their feather coverings and in the decoration of their 
persons and garments, considerable taste was some- 
times exhibited. 

At an early period, the natives recognized the 
superiority of the European commodities, and eagerly 
exchanged their coarse fabrics for the strouds, blan- 
kets and trinkets exhibited by the white traders. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Music and Musical Instruments. — Dancing. — Games. — Gambling. — Festivals. — 
Divisions of the Year. — Counting. — Funeral Customs. 

The Southern Indians were much addicted to 

GAMES, DIVERSIONS, FESTIVALS, and DANCING. It has 

been quaintly remarked that man is the only animal 
that laughs, and we tind in all ages, and among all 
peoples, how limited soever their resources, or narrow 
their avenues to pleasure, special attention has ever 
been paid to the subject of pastimes and amusements. 
During periods when the physical development and 
active training of the human body were eminently ne- 
cessary for individual protection, subsistence, and a 
toleration of the dangers and privations incident to the 
precarious and exposed mode of life, the games in vogue 
were decidedly muscular in their character, and were 
conducted in the open air. On occasions of feasting 
and dancing, the music, both instrumental and vocal, 
was of that simple, primitive kind, adapted to mark the 
time required for the saltatory movements in which 
the performers indulged. Measured sounds there were, 
but melody and harmony were wanting. The cane 
flute, the drum and the rattle, constituted the principal 
musical instruments in vog^ue among the Southern 



MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, 91 

tribes. The form of the decorated reed-flute or recorder 1 
has been preserved for our information, and we are also 
familiar with the shape of the hand-rattle. 2 " For their 
musicke," says Captain John Smith, 3 " they vse a thicke 
Cane on which they pipe as on a Recorder. For their 
warres they haue a great deepe platter of wood. They 
cover the mouth thereof with a skin, at each corner 
they tie a walnut, which meeting on the backside neere 
the bottome, with a small rope they twitch them to- 
gether till it be so taught and stiff e, that they may beat 
vpon it as vpon a drumme. But their chiefe instru- 
ments are Rattles made of small gourds or Pumpeon's 
shels. Of these they haue Base, Tenor, Countertenor, 
Meane and Treble. These, mingled with their voyces 
sometimes twenty or thirtie together, make such a ter- 
rible noise as would rather affright then delight any 
man." Mr. Bartram 4 asserts that the Southern Indians 
were all fond of music and dancing, the music being 
both vocal and instrumental. Anions the musical instru- 
ments he enumerates the tambour, the rattle-gourd, and 
a kind of flute made of the joint of a reed, or of a deer's 
tibia. The last he pronounces a howling instrument, 
producing, instead of harmony, " a hideous, melancholy 
discord." With the tambour and rattle, however, ac- 
companied by sweet, low voices, he confesses himself 
well pleased. These gourd-rattles contained corn, 
beans, or small pebbles, and were shaken by hand or 
struck against the ornamental posts which marked the 
dancing-ring, in exact time with the movements of the 
performers. Large earthen pots, tightly covered 6 with 

1 " Brevis N arratio," plate xxxvii. 2 " Admiranda Xarratio," plate xviii. 

3 " True Travels," etc., vol. i., p. 136. Richmond reprint, 1819. 

4 " Travels," etc., p. 502. London, 1*792. 

5 Brickell's " Natural History of North Carolina," p. 328. Dublin, 1737. 
Beverly says that these earthen drums were half-full of water. " History of Vir 
ginia," book iii., p 55. London, 1705 



92 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

dressed deer-skins, answered as drums. The shells of 
terrapins were also fastened to the ankles or suspended 
from the waist-belts. These being partially filled with 
small stones or beans, with every motion of the body, 
gave utterance to rattling sounds. The leather stock- 
ings of the young dancing- women of the Creeks were 
" hung full of the hoofs of the roe-deer, in form of bells, 
in so much as to make them sound exactly like casta- 
gnettes." 

Captain Romans counted four hundred and ninety- 
three of these horn-bells attached to one pair of stock- 
ings. Nine women, whose hose were similarly fur- 
nished, were present at the dance. Allowing the same 
number of these tinkling ornaments to each, we will 
perceive, by easy calculation, that one thousand one 
hundred and ten deer must have been killed to furnish 
these women with their dancing-bells. These musical 
instruments were supplemented by voices plaintive or 
vehement, slow or rapid, as best accorded with the 
character of the dance. Their songs, whether of war 
or devotion, harvest or hunting, consisted of but few 
words and scanty intonations, repeated in the most 
monotonous way. When we turn to the music and 
poetry of these peoples, we enter indeed upon a barren 
field, with scarcely any thing to provoke inquiry or re- 
ward investigation. 

In the vicinity of the village was a sj3ot specially 
prepared for and devoted to the dance. Here a fire 
was nightly kindled, and all who had a mind to be 
merry, assembled each evening. 1 

In plate xviii. of the " Briefe and True Report of 
the New-found Land of Virginia, made into English by 
Thomas Hariot," we have a lively representation of a 



" Admiranda Narratio/' plate xx. 



DANCING. 



93 



public dance— the occasion a great and solemn feast, to 
which the inhabitants of neighboring towns had been 
invited — the place, a level spot in the midst of a broad 
plain, circular in shape, about which are planted in the 
ground posts " caruecl with heads like to the faces of 
nonnes couered with theyr vayles," the centre being 
occupied by " three of the fayrest Virgins of the corn- 
panie, which, imbrassinge one another, doe, as yt wear, 
turne abowt in their dancinge." Around these, and 
following the line of the posts, fancifully attired and 
bearing in their hands the branches of trees and gourd- 
rattles, with which they keep time by striking them 
against the posts, are wildly singing and dancing, in 
the cool of the evening, the natives assembled for the 
celebration of this u solemne feaste." 

Many of these dances were of a purely social char- 
acter, and were participated in every night by way of 
amusement. Others were designed, by violent exer- 
cise, to prepare the actors " to endure fatigue, and im- 
prove their wind." 1 Others still were had in com. 
memoration of war, of peace and of hunting; others 
in the early spring when the seed was sown, others 
when the harvest was ended ; others — wild and terri- 
ble — in presence of captured victims doomed to tor- 
ture and death ; while others, with slow and solemn 
movement and carefully-observed ceremonies, were 
conducted in honor of some religious festival. There 
was scarce an occurrence of note, or a convocation of 
moment, which did not receive commemoration by a 
dance. Every occasion was provocative of this amuse- 
ment. 

Referring to the dancing of the tribes composing 

1 Lawson's "Carolina," p. 175. London, 1714. 



A 



94: ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEFwN INDIANS, 

the Creek Confederacy, Mr. Bartram 1 writes: "They 
have an endless variety of steps, but the most com- 
mon, and that which I term the most civil, and indeed 
the most admired and practised amongst themselves, 
is a slow, shuffling, alternate step ; both feet move 
forward, one after the other, first the right foot fore- 
most, and next the left, moving one after the other, 
in opposite circles, i. e., first a circle of young men, 
and, wdthin, a circle of young women moving to- 
gether opposite ways, the men with the course of the 
sun and the females contrary to it; the men strike 
their arm with the open hand, and the girls clap hands 
and raise their shrill, sweet voices answering an ele- 
vated shout of the men at stated times of termination 
of the stanzas ; and the girls perform an interlude or 
chorus separately. 

" To accompany their dances they have songs of 
different classes, as martial, bacchanalian and amorous^ 
which last, I must confess, are extravagantly libidi- 
nous ; 2 and they have moral songs which seem to be 
the most esteemed and practised, and answer the pur- 
pose of religious lectures." 

The Choctaws were distinguished above their 
neighbors for their poetry and music. Between their 
towns existed great rivalry in the composition of songs 
for dances, and each year, upon the solemnization of 
the Busk, at least one new song was produced. 

Captain Smith thus describes a dance made for his 
entertainment by Pocahontas during the absence of 
her father : "In a fair, plain Field they made a Fire, 
before which he sat down upon a Mat, when suddenly 
amongst the Woods was heard such a hideous Noise 

1 " Travels," etc., p. 503. London, 1792. 

2 Compare Bossu's account of the dance of impndicity. " Travels," vol. i., 
p. 97. London, 1771. 



DANCE OF POCAHONTAS. 



95 



and shrieking that the English betook themselves to 
their Arms, and seized on two or three Old Men by 
them, supposing Powhatan, with all his Power, was 
coming to surprize them. But presently Pocahontas 
came, willing him to kill her, if any hurt were intended ; 
and the beholders, which were Men, Women and Chil- 
dren, satisfied the Captain that there was no such 
matter. Then presently they were presented with this 
Antick : thirty young Women came naked out of the 
Woods, only covered behind and before with a few 
Green Leaves, their Bodies all painted, some of one 
color, some of another, but all differing ; their Leader 
had a fair pair of Buck's Horns on her Head and an 
Otters Skin at her Girdle, and another at her Arm, 
a Quiver of Arrows at her Back, a Bow and Ar- 
rows in her Hand. The next had in her Hand a 
Sword, another a Club, another a Potstick ; all of 'em 
being Horned alike. The rest were all set out with 
their several Devices. These Fiends with most Hel- 
lish Shouts and Cries, rushing from among the Trees,' 
cast themselves in a King about the Fire, Singing and 
Dancing with most excellent ill variety, oft falling into 
their infernal passions, and then solemnly betaking 
themselves again to Sing and Dance ; having spent 
near an hour in this Mascarado, as they enter d, in like 
manner they departed." 

In plate xxxviii. of the " Brevis Narratio," we see 
nineteen of these dancing-girls moving in a circle and 
singing the praises of the king and queen. Their steps 
are more graceful and their motions far less violent 
and irregular than those practised in religious dances, 
such, for example, as were observed upon the occasion 
of the sacrifice of the first-born. 1 



1 "Brcvis Nairatio," plate sxxiv. 



9(3 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



The great game upon which the Southern Indians 
staked both personal reputation and property, was the 
clmngke-game. It was played by the warriors, and 
with those discoidal stones, the symmetry and beauty 
of which have attracted so much attention. So impor- 
tant was this amusement, so general the indulgence in 
it, and so desperate the betting, that we have deemed 
it proper to devote a separate chapter to its history 
and conduct. • 

In hall-play one village or tribe was often arrayed 
against the other, and the contest, although generally 
good-natured, was prosecuted with so much vigor and 
excitement, that the players sometimes encountered 
blows and tumbles which entailed severe bruises and 
broken limbs. This game was esteemed noble and 
manly; and, in its exercise, involved feats of strength 
and agility. Youths of both sexes were frequently 
engaged, and the principal matches were had in the 
fall of the year. One chief challenges another to the 
contest. They meet and make up the game, each se- 
lecting from his own tribe an equal number of contest- 
ants. Upon the appointed day the respective parties 
meet and lay off the ground upon some plain agreed 
upon, in the vicinity of a town. Much property is 
staked upon the issue, and this is deposited in a pile. 
Each party is then addressed by its chief, who admon- 
ishes fair play and animates the contestants with the 
hope and glory of beating their antagonists. The 
chiefs take no active part in the sport, but, occupying 
a suitable position, act as judges. The players arrange 
themselves in the centre of the ball-ground, and the 
game proceeds. From several accounts descriptive of 
the manner in which the game was played, we select the 



BALL— PLAT. 



97 



following, furnished by Mr. Adair : 1 " The ball is made 
of a piece of scraped deer-skin, moistened, and stuffed 
hard with deer's hair, and strongly sewed with deer's 
sinews. The ball -sticks are about two feet long, the 
lower end somewhat resembling the palm of a hand, 
and which are worked with deer-skin thongs. Be- 
tween these they catch the ball, and throw it a great 
distance, when not prevented by some of the opposite 
party, who fly to intercept them. The goal is about 
five hundred yards in length ; at each end of it they 
fix two long, bending poles into the ground, three 
yards apart below, but slanting a considerable way 
outwards. The party that happens to throw the ball 
over these, counts one ; but if it be thrown underneath, 
it is cast back and played for as usual. The gamesters 
are equal in number on each side ; and at the begin- 
ning of every course of the ball, they throw it up high 
in the centre of the ground, and in a direct line be- 
tween the two goals. AYhen the crowd of players pre- 
vents the one who catched the ball, from throwing it 
off with a long direction, he commonly sends it the 
right course by an artful, sharp twirl. They are so 
exceedingly expert in this manly exercise, that, between 
the goals, the ball is mostly flying the different ways, 
by the force of the playing sticks, without falling to 
the ground, for they are not allowed to catch it with 
their hands. It is surprising to see how swiftly they 
fly, when closely chased by a nimble-footed pursuer ; 
when they are intercepted by one of the opposite 
party, Iris fear of being cut by the ball-sticks, commonly 
gives them an opportunity of throwing it, perhaps a 
hundred yards ; but the antagonist sometimes runs up 



'History of American Indians," p. 400. London, 1775. 



98 1 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



behind, and by a sudden stroke dashes down the ball. 
It is a very unusual thing to see them act spitefully in 
any sort of game, not even in this severe and tempting 
exercise. 

" Once, indeed, I saw some break the legs and arms 
of their opponents, by hurling them down, when on a 
descent and running at fall speed. But I afterward 
understood, there was a family dispute of long continu- 
ance between them, that might have raised their spleen 
as much as the high bets they had then at stake, which 
was almost all they were worth. The Choktah are 
exceedingly addicted to gaming, and frequently, on 
the slightest and most hazardous occasions, will lay 
their all and as much as their credit can procure." 
The method of playing this game did not materially 
differ among the Southern nations. 1 

Foot-ball was also a manly and favorite diversion. 
These games were followed by feasting and dancing in 
the public square. Trials of skill were had with the 
bow and arrow, the spear and the club. The Natchez 
women amused themselves with tossing balls by hand, 
and in playing a game with bits of cane eight or nine 
inches long. " Three of these they hold loosely in one 
hand, and knock them to the ground with another ; if 
two of them fall with the round side undermost, she 
that played counts one ; but if only one, she counts 
nothing." 2 

Lawson 3 mentions several gambling games, as be- 

1 Compare Romans' "Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," 
p. 79. New York, 1775. Haywood's "Natural and Aboriginal History of Ten- 
nessee," p. 285. Nashville, 1823. Bartram's " Travels," etc., p. 506. Lon- 
don, 1792. 

2 Du Pratz' "History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 236. London, 1763. 

3 "History of Carolina," p. 176. London, 1714. Compare Hennepin's "Con- 
tinuation of the New Discovery," etc., chap, xxi , p. 82. London, 1698. 



GrAMESTGT, FEASTS, ETC. 



99 



ing in vogue among the Carolina Indians, some played 
with split reeds and others with persimmon-stones. 

To such a desperate extent was gaming carried, 
that, having lost all their property, the players would 
not infrequently stake upon the final issue even their 
personal liberty, and remain willing servants of the 
victors until redeemed by relatives and friends. 

The great feast of the year, among the Creeks, was 
the I>oos-ke4au. It was celebrated in July or August, 
and partook of the character of a sacred festival, dur- 
ing which universal thanks were offered to the Great 
Spirit for the incoming harvest. All fires were then 
extinguished, and were new lighted from the spark 
kindled by the high-priest. It was an occasion of gen- 
eral purification and of universal amnesty for all crimes 
committed during the year, murder excepted. 1 

Almost every month had its peculiar feast or festi- 
val. Among the Natchez the year began with our 
month of March, and was divided into thirteen moons. 
With each new moon a feast was celebrated, receiving 
its name from the principal fruits gathered or animals 
hunted. Thus, the first moon was called the Deer 
moon and was observed with universal joy as the com- 
mencement of the year. This was followed by the 
festival of streavberries. The third moon ushered in 
the small com, and was impatiently expected because 
the crop of large corn seldom lasted from one harvest; 
to the other. 

The water-melon feast occurred during the fourth 
moon, answering to our month of June. 

1 Hawkins' " Sketch of the Creek Country." Collections of the Georgia His- 
torical Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 75. Savannah, 1848. Bartram's "Travels," 
etc., p. 507. London, 1792. Adair's " History of American Indians," p. ?4. 
London, 1775. Timberlake's "Memoirs," p. 64. London, 1765. 



100 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHED IXDIAXS. 



The fifth moon was that of the fishes. At this 
time grapes were gathered. 

The sixth was known as the mulberry moon. The 
maize or Great- Com moon succeeded, and was ren- 
dered remarkable by the most noted festival of the 
year. The Turkey moon answered to our October, 
while the ninth, and tenth moons were known respec- 
tively as the Buffalo and Bear moons. It was then 
those animals were hunted. The eleventh month was 
called the cold-meal moon; the twelfth, the chestnut 
moon ; and the thirteenth, the walnut moon, 1 

If we may believe Adair, 2 the annual feast of love 
was most carefully observed. 

There were festivals in honor of war and of peace, 
feasts of the dead, of marriage, and for curing the sick, 
and public ceremonies in adoration of the sun and in 
solemnization of various religious rites. When not 
actively engaged in hunting, or in warlike pursuits, 
the time of these primitive peoples was largely spent 
in feasting and dancing. Beneath mild skies, sur- 
rounded by forests yielding many and nutritious 
fruits, with few wants in the present and little care 
for the future, their lives were idly given to amuse- 
ments, and the observance of sundry festivals whose 
recurrence constituted the epochal events of the year. 

When Cabeca de Vaca asserted that the Southern 
Indians were ignorant of all time, and made no reckon- 
ing either by the month or the year, his statement was 
not entirely correct. We have already seen that they 
divided the year into thirteen moons. They also rec- 
ognized four seasons — the return of the sun, summer, 
the fall of the leaf, and winter. Of the celestial 



1 Du Pratz' " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 185. London, 1 763. 

2 "History of American Indians," p. 113. London, 1775. 



DIVISION OF TIME. FUNERAL KITES. 



101 



luminaries they took little note except of " the day- 
moon or sun," and of the " night-sun, or moon." 
Three divisions were assigned to the day — morning, or 
" the sun's coming-out," mid-day, and " the sun fallen 
into the water." 

Arguing from the periodicity of their public reli- 
gious feasts, Adair advances the idea that they under- 
stood the division of weeks into seven days. The year 
commenced with the first new moon of the vernal 
equinox. Knots of various colors and notched sticks 
were used to mark the lapse of time. The Cherokees 
counted as high as a hundred u by various numeral 
names," while the nations of East and West Florida 
" rose no higher than the decimal number, adding 
units after it by a conjunctive copulative." 

We conclude these general observations by an allu- 
sion to the funeral rites observed by the Southern 
Indians. From the multitude of sepulchral shell and 
earth mounds still extant along the coast, it is evident 
that in ancient times the islands and headlands were 
densely populated. The variant ages of these tumuli, 
their internal evidence and many physical facts con- 
nected with them, give assurance that this Indian oc- 
cupancy was long continued. Here the small shell- 
mound formed the common grave of the natives — 
the larger earth-mounds being generally erected in 
honor of chief, priest, or some noted person. The 
common dead were interred in a horizontal position, 
sometimes singly, but usually in numbers. The corpses 
or skeletons, with articles of property, were, in not 
a few instances, burnt upon the spot prior to the erec- 
tion of the mound-tomb. In the tumuli of chiefs and 
priests, however, no evidences of cremation appear. 
In them the corpse was interred in a sitting posture. 



102 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

A thick covering of tenacious clay— enveloping the 
body like a great, rude, inverted jar — or a light- wood 
post, firmly driven into the earth, against which the 
skeleton or dead body was placed, or to w T hich, when 
seated on the ground, it was securely lashed with 
a grape-vine, or cord of some sort, was sometimes em- 
ployed to keep the corpse in proper position while the 
earth was gradually accumulated around and above it. 

The custom of depositing with the dead articles of 
personal property, which, it was believed, would prove 
of service to them both in their journey toward and in 
the land of spirits, seemingly prevailed from the earliest 
times. These sepulchral tumuli are located in the 
vicinity of the ancient villages and fishing-resorts of 
the natives. The indications are, that the coast was 
more densely populated than the other portions of the 
Southern country, excepting, perhaps, the valley-lands 
of some of the principal streams. It is entirely proba- 
ble that the natives inhabiting the interior resorted, at 
certain seasons of the year, in considerable numbers, to 
the islands and headlands of the Atlantic coast and 
the Gulf of Mexico, for the purpose of fishing and sub- 
sisting upon the various and abundant supplies of food 
which the salt-water afforded. This the frequency of 
grave-mounds and relic-beds amply suggests. 

As we leave the sea-shore, and until we encounter 
the rich valleys of more elevated sections, burial-mounds 
become more infrequent, and those dedicated to the in- 
humation of the general dead contain a larger number 
of skeletons than mounds of a similar class located on 
the coast. In them, so far as our observation extends,, 
evidences of cremation are usually wanting. 

Through the pine-barren belt sepulchral tumuli are 
rarely met with; and such as are found are located in 



GRATE— 3I0UXD S . 



103 



the vicinity of deep swamps or near the rivers where 
luxuriant forests and abundant waters afforded gen- 
erous supplies of game and fish. In the beautiful al- 
luvial Talleys of Upper Georgia, Tennessee, the Caro- 
linas, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, we again 
encounter the physical traces of a permanent and ex- 
tensive population. Here we are surrounded with 
monuments attesting the care and labor expended by 
these primitive peoples in commemoration of the last 
resting-places of their dead. 

These burial-mounds are conical or elliptical in 
form, and vary in size from the small tumulus, whose 
outline can scarcely be traced, to barrows quite twenty 
feet high, and a hundred feet or more in diameter at 
the base. 

The practice of entombing the dead in artificial 
tumuli was abandoned by the Southern Indians very 
shortly after the advent of the European, and there are 
good reasons for believing that the custom had fallen 
into disuse prior to that time. The summits and flanks 
of many large mounds which were never constructed 
for burial-purposes, contain, only a few feet below 
the surface, the skeletons of modern Indians. Natural 
elevations and river-bluffs are frequently filled with 
graTes when there is nothing externally to distin- 
guish them as ancient places of sepulture. It would 
seem from some of the earliest accounts we possess, 
that in the sixteenth century and among the Florida 
tribes only kings and high-priests were honored with 
mound-tombs. 

From the absence of burial-mounds in many locali- 
ties which we know must have been thickly settled 
and occupied for roany centuries by the red race, we 
are led to the conclusion that the construction of sepul- 



104 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

clival tumuli was limited, and that the common dead 
— undistinguished by such laborious sepulture — were 
returned to the bosom of mother earth with frail mon- 
uments marking the places of their final repose. 

Even where we possess no historic knowledge of 
the preliminary funeral customs, or of the peoples by 
whom they were observed, it is curious to note the 
circumstance that contiguous barrows, similar in out- 
ward appearance, when opened, reveal different modes 
of interment. As wave after wave breaks upon the 
beach of the great ocean and then is dissipated into 
the evanescent foam or returns to the main to be 
seen and heard no more, each leaving, however, upon 
•the strand its own sea-shells to tell that the tide was 
once there, so during the flight of the lapsed centuries 
have various tribes swept over the same locality, occu- 
pying it in turn, and, when departing, abandoning to 
those who came after, manifest proofs of their tempo- 
rary dominion, and of the rites observed by them in 
the inhumation of their dead. 

Within the historic period, the Choctaws main- 
tained the custom of erecting mounds over their dead — 
the bodies being reserved in bark and cane coffins and 
deposited in a bone-house until they had accumulated 
sufficiently to warrant the labor of a general inter- 
ment. In the early narratives we note a singular 
absence of all personal observation of sepulchral 
mound-building, and since our acquaintance with the 
manners of the Southern Indians the erection of 
tumuli above the dead was seldom attempted by 
them. Instead of concealing the corpses in the womb 
of the laboriously-constructed earth and shell mounds, 
they deposited their dead in cane baskets — having 
first enveloped them in shawls and mats of native 



EUXERAL EITE3 OF THE NATCHEZ. 



105 



manufacture — and laid them away in caves and crev- 
ices in the rocks, hid them in hollow trees, exposed 
them upon scaffolds, covered them with logs and 
stones, submerged them in rivers and lakes, and 
buried them in graves carefully lined with bark and 
poles. Of the funeral rites observed by the Southern 
Indians since the .European colonization of this region, 
we will be advised by the following references. 

Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed 
or placed in tombs. These tombs were located within 
or very near their temples. They rested upon four 
forked sticks, fixed fast in the ground, and were raised 
some three feet above the earth. About eight feet 
long, and a foot and a half wide, they were prepared 
for the reception of a single corpse. After the body 
was placed upon it, a basket-work of twigs was woven 
around and covered with mud, an opening being left 
at the head through which food was presented to the 
deceased. When the flesh had all rotted away, the 
bones were taken out, placed in a box made of canes 
and then deposited in the temple. The common dead 
were mourned and lamented for a period of three 
days. Those who fell in battle were honored with a 
more protracted and grievous lamentation. 

The demise of a Sun was followed by putting to 
death large numbers of his subjects, both male and 
female, that he might not appear unattended in the 
spirit-world. 

In 1725 the Stung Serpent, who was the brother 
of the Great Sun, died. M. Le Page du Pratz was 
present on the occasion, and furnishes the following 
description of what then occurred : " We entered the 
hut of the deceased and found him on his bed of state, 
dressed in his finest cloaths, his face painted with ver- 



106 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

rnilioii, shod as if for a journey, with his feather-crown 
on his head. To his bed were fastened his arms, 
which consisted of a double-barreled gun, a pistol, 
a bow, a quiver full of arrows, and a tomahawk. 
Round his bed were placed all the calumets of peace 
he had received during his life, and on a pole, planted 
in the ground near it, hung a chain of forty-six rings 
of cane, painted red, to express the number of enemies 
he had slain. All his domesticks were round him, and 
they presented victuals to him at the usual hours, as if 
he were alive. The company in his hut were composed 
of his favourite wife, of a second wife, which he kept 
in another village and visited when his favourite was 
with child, of his chancellor, his physician, his chief 
domestic, his pipe-bearer, and some old women, who 
were all to be strangled at his interment. ... Soon 
after, the natives begun the dance of death, and pre- 
pared for the funeral of the Stung Serpent. Orders 
were given to put none to death on that occasion, but 
those who were in the hut of the deceased. A child, 
however, had been already strangled by its father and 
mother, which ransomed then lives upon the death of 
the Great Sun, and raised them from the rank of Stink- 
ards to that of Nobles. Those who were appointed to 
die were conducted twice a day, and placed in two rows 
before the tenrple, where they acted over the scene of 
their death, each accompanied by eight of their own 
relations who were to be their executioners, and by 
that office exempted themselves from dying upon the 
death of any of the suns, and likewise raised them- 
selves to the dignity of men of rank. . . . On the day 
of the interment, the wife of the deceased made a very 
moving speech to the French who were present, rec- 
ommending her children — to whom she also addressed 
herself — to their friendship, and advising a perpetual 



EUXEEAL OF THE STUXG SEEPEXT. 



107 



union between the two nations. Soon after, the master 
of the ceremonies appeared in a red-feathered crown, 
which half encircled his head, having a red staff in his 
hand in the form of a cross, at the end of which hunsc 
a garland of Mack feathers. All the upper part of 
his body was painted red, excepting his arms, and 
from his girdle to his knees hung a fringe of feathers, 
the rows of which were alternately white and reel. 
When he came before the hut of the deceased, he sa- 
luted him with a great Jioo, and then began the cry of 
death, in which he was followed by the whole people. 
Immediately after, the Stung Serpent was brought out 
on his bed of state, and was placed on a litter, which 
six of the guardians of the temple bore on their shoul- 
ders. The procession then began, the master of the 
ceremonies walking first, and after him the oldest war- 
rior, holding in one hand the pole with the rings of 
canes, and in the other the pipe of war — a mark of the 
dignity of the deceased. Xext followed the corpse, af- 
ter which came those who were to die at the inter- 
ment. The whole procession went three times round 
the hut of the deceased, and then those who carried 
the corpse proceeded in a circular kind of march, ev- 
ery turn intersecting the former, until they came to 
the temple. At every turn, the dead child was thrown 
by its parents before the bearers of the corpse, that 
they might walk over it ; and when the corpse was 
placed in the temple the victims were immediately 
strangled. The Stung Serpent and his two wives were 
buried in the same grave within the temple ; the other 
victims were intered in different parts, and after the 
ceremony they burnt, according to custom, the hut of 
the deceased/ 1 1 



1 Du Pratz' " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 216. London, 1763. 



108 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



The Virginia kings, after death, were disposed of 
in the following manner : The body was slit in the 
back, and through the opening thus made the flesh was 
removed — the sinews being left so as to preserve the 
attachments of the various joints. The bones were 
then dried, the skin being prevented from shrinking by 
an application of oil or grease. ^Subsequently they 
were carefully disposed in proper order in the skin, 
the vacuities caused by the removal of the flesh being 
nicely filled with fine white sand, so as to restore the 
body to its natural size and appearance. Thus pre- 
pared, the corpse was laid upon a shelf, raised above 
the floor, in the building erected for the preservation 
of the corpses of their kings and rulers. This shelf was 
overspread with mats. The flesh removed during this 
rude process of embalming, having been exposed upon 
hurdles to the sun and thoroughly dried, was sewed 
up in a basket and set at the feet of the body. In this 
house of the dead was set up a Quioccos or idol, as a 
guard or sacred watcher over the remains. A priest 
remained in constant attendance night and day, whose 
office it was to keep every thing in order. 1 

The common people were buried in the earth in 
ordinary graves. 

Anions the Carolina tribes, the burial of the dead 
was accompanied with special ceremonies — the expense 
and formality attendant upon the funeral, according 
with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was first 
placed in a cane hurdle and deposited in an out-house, 
made for the purpose, where it was suffered to remain 
for a day and a night, guarded and mourned over by 

1 Hariot's " Virginia," plate xxii. Francoforti ad Moenum, 1590. "History 
and Present State of Virginia " (Beverly). Book ill., chap, viii., p. 47. London, 
1705. "A True Relation of Virginia" (Smith), p. 43. Boston, 1866. 



FUNERAL CUSTOMS OF CAROLINA INDIANS. 109 

the nearest relatives, with dishevelled hair. Those 
who are to officiate at the funeral, go into the town, 
and, from the backs of the first young men they meet, 
strip such blankets and match-coats as they deem suit- 
able for their purpose. In these the dead body is 
wrapped, and then covered with two or three mats 
made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven 
reeds, or hollow canes tied fast at both ends. When 
everything is prepared for the interment, the corpse is 
carried from the house in which it has been lying, into 
the orchard of peach-trees, and is there deposited in 
another hurdle. Seated upon mats, are there congre- 
gated the family and tribe of the deceased, and invited 
guests. The medicine-man or conjurer, having enjoined 
silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during 
which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his 
valor, skill, love of country, property, and influence, 
alludes to the void caused by his death, and counsels 
those who remain to supply his place by following in 
his footsteps, pictures the happiness he will encounter 
in the world of spirits to which he has gone, and con- 
cludes his address by_an allusion to the prominent 
traditions of his tribe. He is followed by other speak- 
ers. "At last," says Mr. Lawson, 1 "the Corpse is 
brought away from that Hurdle to the Grave by four 
young Men, attended by the Kelations, the King, old 
Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the 
Sepulcre, which is about six Foot deep and eight 
Foot long, having at each end (that is, at the Head and 
Foot), a Light- Wood or Pitch-Pine Fork driven close 
down the sides of the Grave, firmly into the Ground ; 
(these two Forks are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you 
shall understand presently) before they lay the Corps 

1 " History of Carolina," etc., p. 181. London, 1714. 



110 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

into the Grave, they cover the bottom two or three 
times over with the Bark of Trees, then they let down 
the Corps (with two Belts that the Indians carry their 
Burdens withal) very leisurely, upon the said Barks ; 
then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the 
two Forks, and having a great many Pieces of Pitch- 
Pine Logs, about two Foot and a half long, they stick 
them in the sides of the Grave down each End, and 
near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie on the 
Bidge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of 
a House. These being very thick-plac'd they cover 
them [many times double] with Bark; then they 
throw the Earth thereon, that came out of the Grave, 
and beat it down very firm ; by this Means the dead 
Body lies in a Vault, nothing touching him. . . . 

"Now, when the Flesh is rotted and moulder' d 
from the Bone, they take up the Carcass and clean the 
Bones, and joint them together ; afterwards, they dress 
them up in pure white dress' d Deer-skins, and lay 
them amongst their Grandees and Kings in the Quio- 
gozon, which is their Royal Tomb or Burial-Place of 
their Kings and War-Captains. This is a very large 
magnificent Cabin [according to their Building] which 
is rais'd at the Publick Charge of the Nation, and main- 
tained in a great deal of Form and Neatness. About 
seven foot high, is a Floor or Loft made, on which lie 
all their Princes and Great Men that have died for 
several hundred Years, all attir'd in the Dress I before 
told you of. No Person is to have his Bones lie here, 
and to be thus dress'd, unless he gives a round Sum 
of their Money to the Rulers for Admittance. If they 
remove never so far, to live in a Foreign Country, they 
never fail to take all these dead Bones along with 
them, though the Tediousness of their short daily 



FUNERAL CUSTOMS OF CAROLINA INDIANS. Ill 

Marches keeps tliem never so long on their Journey. 
They reverence and adore this Quiogozon with all the 
Veneration and Eespect that is possible for such a 
People to discharge, and had rather lose all, than have 
any Violence or Injury offer' d thereto. These Sav- 
ages differ some small matter in their Burials ; some 
burying right upwards and otherwise. . . . Yet they 
all agree in their Mourning, which is to appear every 
Night, at the Sepulcre, and howl and weep in a very 
dismal manner, having their faces clawb'd over with 
Light-wood Soot [which is the same as Lamp-black] 
and Bear's Oil. This renders them as black as it is 
possible to make themselves, so that theirs very much 
resemble the Faces of Executed Men boil'd in Tar. 
If the dead Person was a Grandee, to carry on the 
Funeral Ceremonies they hire People to cry and la- 
ment over the dead Man. Of this sort there are sev- 
eral that practise it for a Livelihood, and are very 
expert at Shedding abundance of Tears, and howling 
like Wolves, and so discharging their Office with 
abundance of Hypocrisy and Art. The women are 
never accompanied with these Ceremonies after Death ; 
and to what World they allot that Sex, I never un- 
derstood, unless, to wait on their dead Husbands ; but 
they have more Wit than some of the Eastern Na- 
tions, who sacrifice themselves to accompany their Hus- 
bands into the next World. It is the dead Man's 
Eelations by Blood, as his Uncles, Brothers, Sisters, 
Cousins, Sons, and Daughters, that mourn in good 
earnest, the Wives thinking their Duty is discharg'd, 
and that they are become free when their Husband is 
dead ; so, as fast as they can, look out for another to 
suj^ply his Place." 

The ceremonies attendant upon the sepulture of 



112 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



the Choctaw dead are thus described by Captain Ber- 
nard Romans : 1 " As soon as the deceased is departed 
a stage is erected and the corpse laid on it and cov- 
ered with a bear-skin ; if he be a man of note it is 
decorated and the poles painted red with vermillion 
and bear's oil ; if a child, it is put upon stakes set 
across : at this stage the relations come and weep, ask- 
ing many questions of the corpse, such as, Why he left 
them ? Did not his wife serve him well % Was he not 
contented with his children ? Had he not corn enough ? 
Did not his land produce sufficient of every thing? 
Was he afraid of his enemies? etc., and this accom- 
panied by loud howlings ; the women will be there 
constantly, and sometimes, with the corrupted air and 
heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige the by-standers 
to carry them home; the men will also come and 
mourn in the same manner, but in the night or at 
other unseasonable times when they are least likely 
to be discovered. 

" The stage is fenced round with poles, it remains 
thus a certain time, but not a fixed space, this is some- 
times extended to three or four months, but seldom 
more, than half that time. A certain set of venerable 
old Gentlemen who wear very long nails as a distin- 
guishing badge on the thumb, fore and middle finger 
of each hand, constantly travel through the nation 
[when i was there i was told there were but five of this 
respectable order] that one of them may acquaint those 
concerned of the expiration of this period, which is ac- 
cording to their own fancy ; the day being come the 
friends and relations assemble near the stas;e, a fire is 
made, and the respectable operator, after the body is 

1 "A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., pp. 89,90. 
New York, 1775. 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE CHOCTAWS. 113 

taken down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh off 
the bones and throws it with the entrails into the fire, 
where it is consumed ; then he scrapes the bones and 
burns the scrapings likewise; the head, being painted 
red with vermillion, is, with the rest of the bones put 
into a neatly made chest (which, for a chief, is also 
made red), and deposited in the loft of a hut built for 
that purpose, and called bone-house ; each town has 
one of these ; after remaining here one year or there- 
abouts, if he be a man of any note, they take the chest 
down, and in an assembly of relations and friends they 
weep once more over him, refresh the colour of the 
head, paint the box red, and then deposit him to last- 
ing oblivion. 

" An enemy, and one who commits suicide, is buried 
under the earth as one to be directly forgotten and un- 
worthy the above ceremonial obsequies and mourning." 

Mr. Bartram's account is substantially the same, 
save that he intimates there is a general inhumation so 
soon as the bone-house becomes full of coffins. Then 
the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives 
of the deceased to the place of interment, where they 
are all piled one upon another in the form of a pyramid, 
and the conical hill of earth heaped above. The funer- 
al ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of 
a festival called the feast of tlie dead? 

The Muscogulges buried their dead in the earth — a 
deep pit, about four feet square, being dug under the 
cabin and couch occupied by the deceased. This grave 
was carefully lined with cypress-bark, and in it the 
corpse placed in a sitting posture. Such articles of 



1 See BartranTs "Travels," etc., p. 514. London, 1792. Compare Adair's 
" History of the American Indians," pp. 183, 184. London, ll^Jo. 



114 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



property as he valued most, were deposited with him. 1 
Among the Alibamons — who also buried their dead in 
a sitting posture — to the suicide was denied the rite of 
sepulture. He was regarded as a coward, and his body 
was thrown into a river. 2 

The funeral customs of the Chicasaws 3 did not dif- 
fer materially from those of the Muscogulges. They 
interred the dead as soon as the breath left the body, 
and beneath the couch on which the deceased expired. 

Lieutenant Timberlake 4 intimates that the Chero- 
kees, living upon the banks of the Tennessee, seldom 
buried their dead, but threw them into the river. Mr. 
Adair's observations were entirely different. He as- 
serts 5 that when any member of this nation died away 
from home — if his companions were not closely pur- 
sued — the corpse was placed on a scaffold, covered with 
notched logs, to protect it from wild beasts and birds. 
When they imagined that the flesh had been con- 
sumed and the bones become dry, they returned to the 
spot, enveloped the skeleton in white deer-skins, 
brought it home, and, having mourned over it, buried 
it with the usual solemnities. Piles of stones were 
heaped up to commemorate the spots where fell their 
distinguished warriors, and to these rude monuments 
each passer-by added a stone in token of his apprecia- 
tion of the valor and brave deeds of the deceased. 

When a Cherokee died at home, his corpse was at 
once washed and anointed, brought out of his lodge 
and placed in a sitting posture on the skins of wild 

1 Bartram's "Travels," etc., p. 513. London, 1792. Romans' [" Florida," 
p. 98. New York, 1115. 

2 Bossu's "Travels through Louisiana," vol. i., pp. 257, 258. London, 1771. 
3 Romans' "Florida," p. 71. 

4 "Memoirs," etc., p. 67. London, 1765. 

5 " History of the American Indians," p. 180. London, 1775. 



EUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE CHEROKEE3. 115 

beasts, supported by all his articles of property dis- 
posed around him, and with his face turned westward, 
as though looking into the door of the winter-house. 
A eulogium was then pronounced ; and, when the 
period allotted for mourning had elapsed, the body 
carried three times around the house, in which it was 
to be interred, those officiating stopping for half a 
minute at the completion of each circuit. The reli- 
gious man of the family of the deceased, who walked 
in front, chanted the funeral-song, in the chorus of 
which the procession joined. 

Mr. Adair was present when a chief was buried. 
It would appear that he was interred beneath the floor 
of a winter-house. The preliminary funeral rites hav- 
ing been performed in the manner just indicated, "they 
laid," says our observer, " the corpse in his tomb in a 
sitting posture, with his face towards the east, his head 
anointed with bear's oil and his face painted red, but 
not streaked with black, because that is a constant 
emblem of war and death ; he was drest in his finest 
apparel, having his gun and pouch and trusty hiccory 
bow, with a young panther's skin full of arrows, along- 
side of him, and every other useful thing he had been 
possessed of, that, when he rises again, they may serve 
him in that tract of land which pleased him best be- 
fore he went to take his long sleep. His tomb was 
firm and clean inside. They covered it with thick logs, 
so as to bear several tiers of cypress bark, and such a 
quantity of clay, as would confine the putrid smell, 
and be on a level with the rest of the floor. They of- 
ten sleep over those tombs, which, with the loud wail- 
ing of the women at the dusk of the evening, and 
dawn of the day, on benches close by the tombs, must 
awake the memory of their relations very often ; and 



116 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

if they were killed by an enemy, it helps to irritate 
and set on such revengeful tempers, to retaliate blood 
for blood." 

Juan Ortiz — sole survivor, among the Florida tribes, 
of the expedition of Panphilo de Narvaez, and for 
twelve long years condemned to slavery in the " Land 
of Flowers " — was, by his captors, compelled to stand 
guard at the temple in which the Indian dead reposed. 
Upon peril of his life he was forced to watch, lest the 
wild beasts should come by night and steal away the 
bodies. The story of his good fortune in delivering 
from the jaws of a predatory wolf the corpse of an 
Indian boy, is familiar to the readers of the narratives 
of De Soto's expedition. 

The general respect paid by the natives to their 
dead, the care exhibited in the proper solemnization of 
their funeral rites, the private and public exhibitions 
of sorrow, the expressed belief in the existence of a 
spirit-world, the effort to furnish the deceased with 
such articles as wmild prove most serviceable upon 
the long journey, and in new and pleasant fields, the 
jealousy with which they watched over and defended 
the places of sepulture, and the earnestness and hon- 
or with which they perpetuated the memories of the 
great when they no longer walked among the living, 
declare that these primitive 'peoples — how barbarous 
soever they, in other respects, might have been — held 
no" light thoughts from objects of mortality," drew no 
" provocatives of mirth from anatomies," and showed 
no jugglers' tricks with skeletons. Their corpses were 
never knaved out of their graves to have their skulls 
made into drinking-bowls, or their bones turned into 
pipes. In nothing was the character of the Southern 
Indian worthy of greater commendation than in his 



VENERATION FOR GRAVES. 



117 



veneration for the reputation and the tomb of his de- 
ceased leader, in the solicitude with which he laid his 
relative and friend to rest beneath the shadows of his 
native forests and within sight of his own village, and 
in the vigilance with which he insured the undisturbed 
repose of the dead of family and tribe. 

Truthfully might the ret aiming Indian, as he muses 
over the deserted and mutilated burial-place of his fa- 
thers, exclaim : 

"This bank, in which the dead were laid, 
Was sacred when its soil was ours ; 

" But now the wheat is green and high, 
On clods that hid the warrior's breast, 
And scattered in the furrows lie 

The weapons of his rest ; 
And there, in the loose sand, is thrown 
Of his large arm the mouldering bone. 

" Ah ! little thought the strong and brave 
Who bore their lifeless chieftain forth, 
Or the young wife, that weeping gave 

Her first-born to the earth, 
That the pale race, who waste us now, 
x\raong their bones should guide the plough." 



CHAPTEK V. 



General Observations on Mound-Building. — Bartram's Account of the Georgia 
Tumuli. — Absence of Megalithic Monuments and Animal-shaped Mounds. — 
Distribution of the Ancient Population. — Few Sepulchral Mounds erected 
since the Advent of Europeans. — Antiquity of the Tumuli. 

What Sir Thomas Browne 1 quaintly styles " the 
restless inquietude for the *diuturnity of our memo- 
ries," an ambitious desire to wrest from oblivion the 
names and graves of such as were famed for feats of 
arms or remarkable for some individual excellence, an 
appreciation of the fact that in the tomb of the dead 
hero lived recollections which, while they dignified 
the past, also inspired hope in the present and proved 
a powerful incentive to future action, and that inclina- 
tion (so natural to the human heart in all ages) to 
render the most affectionate and honorable sepulture 
to the departed, have united in causing the erection of 
some of the oldest and most prominent artificial monu- 
ments extant upon the earth's surface. Urnal inter- 
ments, burnt relics and earth-mounds, inasmuch as 
they " lie not in fear of worms," endure when personal 
and even national memories have perished. In some 
of them rest the surest and earliest physical proofs of 
the antiquity of man. Amid the depths of forests^ 



1 " Hydriotaphia." 



ANTIQUITY OF EARTH— MOUNDS. 



119 



where every thing like a history or even a tradition of 
the peoples who once dwelt beneath their shadows, is, 
to us of the present day, emphatically " in the urn," 
the curiosity of subsequent ages has, in ancient graves 
and sepulchral tumuli, caught a glimpse of many 
things appertaining to ' a forgotten past, learned lessons 
of the general pyre, the last valediction, the funeral cus- 
toms, the religious rites and the domestic economy 
of nameless nations whose former existence could oth- 
erwise have been scarcely more than conjectured. 

In periods the most remote, the earth-mound seems 
to have suggested itself as the most natural and en- 
during method of perpetuating the memory and of 
designating the last resting-place of the illustrious 
dead. The mound at Aconithus, erected over Arta- 
chies — the superintendent of the canal at Athos — re- 
mains, to this day, a memorial of Persian usage, a pub- 
lic recognition of the ability of that engineer, so 
famous in his generation, and a proof of the fidelity 
of Herodotus as an historian. Those mighty tumuli 
which tower along the banks of the Borysthenes are 
the tombs of Scythian kings. The neighborhood of 
the Gygsean Lake, near Sardis, in Asia Minor, is ren- 
dered remarkable by the presence of circular mounds,* 
among which, perhaps, the most recent is that " prince 
of tumuli," the tomb of Alyattes, King of Lyclia, which 
for nearly twenty-five hundred years has braved the 
changing seasons. 

Allusions to such structures are not infrequent 
among the ancient poets. Thus Orestes, when ad- 
dressing the manes of the murdered Agamemnon, says : 

"If but some Lycian spear 'neath Ilium's walls 
Had lowly laid thee, 
A mighty name in the ^tridan halls 
Thou wouldst have made thee. 



120 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS, 



Then hadst thou pitched thy fortunes like a star 
To son and daughter shining from afar! 

Beyond the wide-waved sea the high-heaped mound 
Had told forever 

Thy feats of battle, aud with glory crowned 

Thy high endeavor." 

The ceremonies attendant upon the burial of Pa- 
troclus are thus cornmeniorated in the " Iliad : " 

" The Greeks obey. Where yet the embers glow 
Wide o'er the pile the sable wine they throw, 
And deep subsides the ashy heap below. 
Next the white bones his sad companions place. 
With tears collected, in the golden vase. 
The sacred relics to the tent they bore ; 
The urn a vale of linen covered o'er. 
That done, they bid the sepulchre aspire, 
And cast the deep foundations round the pyre. 
High in the midst they heap the swelling bed 
Of rising earth, memorial of the dead." 

Tydeus and Lycus were buried under earthen 
barrows, and Alexander the Great caused a tumulus 
to be heaped above his friend Hephsestion at a cost of 
twelve hundred talents. So ancient are some of these 
earth-mounds that they were old and mysterious in 
the days of Homer. Even in more polished ages, and 
in seasons of extreme opulence, the memory of the 
mound-tomb was not forgotten. Its rude earth dome 
was seen surmounting a circular arrangement of ex- 
quisite porticos, columns, and decorated walls, facing 
nearly every degree of the circle, aud resplendent in all 
the carving and polish which the most beautiful mar- 
ble could receive. 1 

Apart from monuments which we know to have 
been erected within the historic period, scattered over 



1 See Smyth's " Antiquity of Intellectual Man," pp. 102, 103. Edinburgh, 1868. 



AXCIEXT TUMULI 1 1ST GEORGIA. 



121 



the plains, peopling the valleys, and crowning the hills 
of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the islands of 
the ocean, we find ancient tumuli — abundant and si- 
lent witnesses of the early constructive labors of name- 
less tribes and nations. 

More than three hundred years ago, artificial tu- 
muli within the present geographical limits of Georgia 
attracted the notice of the Spanish adventurers and 
early voyagers. These physical traces of a popula- 
tion apparently older and more patient of labor than 
that which they found in possession of the soil, while 
they excited the wonder and curiosity of the colo- 
nists, do not appear to have enlisted any careful 
inquiry, or to have received a minute examination. 
The most august of them were dismissed with lit- 
tie more than a bare mention of their existence, and, 
even where descriptions were attempted, they were 
either so meagre in their outlines as to be almost 
valueless for the purposes of definite information, or 
so exaggerated as to savor more of romance than of 
reality. 

At a remove from those who could verify their ob- 
servations by personal examination and careful inspec- 
tion — filled with vague conjectures touching manners 
and matters entirely novel in their character — in a re- 
gion wild, remote, and abounding with strange scenes, 
unusual features and but partially-comprehended tradi- 
tions — with imaginations often excited to the last de- 
gree — influenced by extravagant rumors — sometimes 
investing an occurrence, a suggestion, or an object, with 
an air of importance far beyond its deserts, and again 
treating with entire neglect or disdainful words things 
which were really worthy of specific mention and his- 
toric commemoration, the early narrators compel the 



122 



ANTIQUITIES OE THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



candid reader to receive their relations cum grano 
salis. 

Since the date of their observations, and even of 
Mr. Bartram's visit, the winds and rains of many sea- 
sons have sadly changed the appearance of these earth- 
mounds. Worn away by the elements, marred by the 
ploughshare, and torn asunder by the curious, many of 
them have been despoiled of their original proportions. 
The branches of the forest-trees which once overshad- 
owed them are, in not a few instances, no longer out- 
stretched for their preservation, and some have been 
wholly crushed out of existence by the tread of a 
statelier civilization. 

Making, however, due allowance for such changes, 
after a somewhat extended and careful survey of these 
monuments, we cannot resist the impression that the 
early descriptions are frequently not only over- wrought, 
but unnatural. What would now be regarded as an 
ordinary conical mound has, on more than one occasion, 
been represented as possessing physical peculiarities of 
an unusual and remarkable character. 

Garcilasso mentions the existence of large artificial 
tumuli with precipitous sides, flat on the top, and 
located in rich valleys, near the banks of beautiful 
streams, and says that they were erected for the pur- 
pose of sustaining the houses of chiefs and their fami- 
lies. Wooden stairways made by cutting out inclined 
planes fifteen or twenty feet wide, flanked on the sides 
with posts and with poles laid horizontally across the 
earthen steps, afforded the means of ascending to their 
tops. At the foot of these mounds a square was 
marked out, around which were built the dwellings of 
the principal men of the tribe. Outside appeared the 
wigwams of the common people. A disposition to 



baeteam's account of the geoegia tumuli. 123 

place the residence of the chief in a commanding posi- 
tion — thereby elevating the cacique above his subjects 
— and a desire to contribute to his personal security are 
assigned as motives for the expenditure of so much labor. 

Various are the allusions made by that intelligent 
and interesting traveller, Mr. William Bartram, to the 
presence of ancient tumuli within the limits of Georgia. 
Some of his descriptions are evidently exaggerated, 
but they are the most minute which have been pre- 
served for our information. From them we select the 
following. 

Above the town of Wiwhtsboro and overlooking 
the low grourids of the north branch of Little River, 
he saw " very magnificent monuments of the power 
and industry of the ancient inhabitants of these lands. 
. . . I observed," he writes, " a stupendous conical 
pyramid, or artificial mount of earth, vast tetragon ter- 
races, and a large sunken area, of a cubical form, en- 
compassed with banks of earth ; and certain traces of 
a larger Indian town, the work of a powerful nation, 
whose period of grandeur perhaps long preceded the 
discovery of this continent.'" 1 

At Silver Bluff, on the Savannah River, the surface 
of the ground was rendered remarkable by " various 
monuments and vestiges of the residence of the an- 
cients ; as Indian conical mounts, terraces, areas, etc., 
as well as remains or traces of fortresses of regular for- 
mation." 2 

Near Fort James, which was located not far from 
the confluence of the Broad and Savannah Rivers, the 
surgeon of the garrison drew the attention of Mr. Bar- 
tram to some Indian monuments " worthy of every 

1 "Travels," etc., p. 37. London, 1792. 
3 Ibid., p. 313. 



124 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

traveller's notice. . . . These wonderful labours of the 
ancients stand in a level plain, very near the bank of 
the river, now twenty or thirty yards from it. They 
consist of conical mounts of earth, and four square ter- 
races, etc. The great mount is in the form of a cone, 
about forty or fifty feet high, and the circumference of 
its base two or three hundred yards, entirely composed 
of the loamy rich earth of the low-grounds ; the top or 
apex is fiat : a spiral path or track leading from the 
ground up to the top is still visible, where now grows 
a large, beautiful spreading Eed Cedar (Juniperus 
Americana) ; there appear four niches, excavated out of 
the sides of this hill, at different heights from the 
base, fronting the four cardinal points ; these niches or 
sentry boxes are entered into from the winding path, 
and seem to have been meant for resting-places or look- 
outs. The circumjacent level grounds are cleared and 
planted with Indian Corn at present ; and I think the 
proprietor of these lands, who accompanied us to this 
place, said that the mount itself yielded above one 
hundred bushels in one season : the land hereabouts is 
indeed exceedingly fertile and productive." 1 

Having suggested that these tumuli were intended to 
serve as " look-out towers," having commented upon the 
fact that such public works would have required the 
united labor and attention of a whole nation— circum- 
stanced as the Indians then were — to have constructed 
one of them almost in an age, and after describing sev- 
eral smaller mounds " round the great one, with some 
very large tetragon terraces on each side, near one 
hundred yards in length," with surfaces elevated four, 
six, eight, and ten feet above the ground, our author 
concludes by hazarding the conjecture that these arti- 



1 "Travels," etc., pp. 322, 323. London, 1792. 



ANCIENT MOUNDS IN THE CHEROKEE COUNTRY. 125 

ficial elevations were designed as " retreats and ref- 
uges " from the. swelling tide of the river during sea- 
sons of sudden inundations. 

The mounds on the east bank of the Oemulgee 
River, near Macon, did not escaj3e the observation of 
Mr. Bartram. Even the lonely mounds along the Ala- 
tamaha attracted his attention. 

The council-house of the Cherokee town of Cowe, 
he tells us, was a large rotunda capable of accomodat- 
ing several hundred people. It stood " on the top of 
an ancient artificial mount of earth, of about twenty 
feet perpendicular," and — the rotunda itself being 
rather more than thirty feet high — the whole fabric 
possessed an elevation of about sixty feet. " It is 
proper to observe," he continues, " that this mount on 
which the rotunda stands, is of a much an ci enter date 
than the building, and perhaps was raised for another 
purpose. The Cherokees themselves are as ignorant 
as we are, by what people or for what purpose these 
artificial hills were raised ; they have various stories 
concerning them, the best of which amount to no more 
than mere conjecture, and leave us entirely in the dark ; 
but they have a tradition common with the other na- 
tions of Indians, that they found them in much the 
same condition as they now appear, when their fore- 
fathers arrived from the West and possessed them- 
selves of the country, after vanquishing the nations of 
red men who then inhabited it, who themselves found 
these mounts when they took possession of the coun- 
try, the former possessors delivering the same story 
concerning them : perhaps they were designed and ap- 
propriated by the people who constructed them, to 
some religious purpose as great altars and temples." 1 

1 "Travels," etc., pp. 365, 366. London, 1792. 



126 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



During the progress of this investigation it will be 
perceived that mound-building — which seems to have 
been falling into disuse ainono- the Southern Indians 
prior to the dawn of the historic period — was entirely 
abandoned very shortly after intercourse was estab- 
lished between the Europeans and the red-men. We 
will observe, moreover, that these ancient tumuli were, 
by later tribes, subjected to secondary uses, so that in 
not a few instances the summits and flanks of large 
temple-mounds originally designed for religious objects 
— such as the worship of the sun — were, by the Creeks 
and Cherokees, converted into stockade-forts, used as 
elevations for council-lodges and the residences of their 
chiefs, or devoted to the purposes of sepulture. This 
can scarcely be wondered at when we remember that 
many of the nomadic tribes who peopled this region 
were unstable in their seats, engaged in ever-recurring 
and annihilating wars, and constantly yielding to the 
conquest of more powerful neighbors who, expelling 
them from some coveted hunting-ground or fishing- 
resort, possessed themselves of the desired domain, 
caring little for the frail memories which clustered 
about the name and monuments of the vanquished. 
In an age entirely devoid of letters, it is not surprising 
that with the lapse of time the victors should have pre- 
served not even a distinct tradition of .the conquered. 
It will be remembered that the North American In- 
dian was generally quite reticent as to his people and 
their old customs, and frequently denied to the stranger 
a knowledge of matters which he did not desire either 
to discuss or to reveal. When we reflect upon the care- 
less and uncertain manner in which the annals of these 
peoples were perpetuated, it is not improbable that in 
the course of centuries all definite accounts of the 



ABSENCE OF MEGALITHTC MONUMENTS. 



127 



builders of these artificial elevations and the history of 
their construction should have faded from the recol- 
lection even of the descendants of those by whom they 
were erected. 

In one of his addresses to the pupils of the Eoyal 
Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds remarked that when 
the ignorant inhabitants of the East were questioned 
concerning the stately ruins which filled their land — 
melancholy monuments of former grandeur and long- 
lost science — their universal response was, "-They were 
built by magicians. 1 ' Finding a vast gulf between its 
own powers and works indicative of skill and great 
labor, the untaught and inert mind of the savage clis- 
misses the contemplation of their origin and primal uses 
either with an avowal of utter ignorance on the subject 
or by referring their creation to the agency of some 
supernatural influence. It is proper, therefore, to re- 
ceive with caution the traditions delivered by the 
modern Indians with regard to the erection and history 
of the more august tumuli which dignify the valleys 
and tower along the banks of some of the principal 
rivers in Georgia. With the exception of stone graves, 
rock-piles, and walls loosely constructed of stones, laid 
one upon the other, there is, in this State, a remarkable 
absence of megalithic monuments, such as dolmens, 
menhirs, and avenues, which abound in so many por- 
tions of the Old World. We search in vain for animal- 
shaped mounds; and yet Georgia, in almost every sec- 
tion, teems with vestiges of an ancient population now 
wholly extinct within her borders. Stone tumuli and 
rudely-constructed rock-walls rear their heads even 
upon the summit of lofty Yonah. The spurs of the 
Blue Ridge give frequent evidence of inhumations 
whose mouldering heaps have for generations defied 



128 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

the anniliilating influences of the tempest. The beau- 
tiful valleys of jNacoochee, of the Etowah, the Ooste- 
naula, the Chattahoochee, and other streams, are ren- 
dered remarkable by the presence of tumuli of unusual 
size. Upon the banks of the Savannah, by the waters 
of the Ogeechee, and within the swamps of the Ala- 
tamaha, are found surprising monuments of ancient 
industry and devotion. Even throughout the lonely 
pine-barren region similar remains exist wherever a 
truant stream or moss-clad swamp infuses new vigor 
into the forest growth, and affords friendly cover for 
game. The coast and the low-lying islands are literally 
studded with tumuli beneath which the unnumbered 
and nameless dead of centuries repose. 

As the presence of these mounds may be regarded 
as indicating the particular localities most thickly peo- 
pled by the aborigines in years long since reckoned with 
an unrecorded past, we are able to state, in general 
terms, that the tendency of this early population was 
toward the rivers and deep swamps, the rich valleys 
and the sea-coast. The physical inducements which 
impelled nomadic tribes to give a preference to such 
seats are obvious. Seldom are earth-mounds found at 
a considerable remove from water-courses. Water and 
game were the chief attractions in the choice of a set- 
tlement. Eich alluvial lands, whose fertility would 
make amends for the rude cultivation bestowed upon 
them, were often selected as the sites of their vil- 
lages. In those early days the rivers abounded with 
fish, and the deep swamps were replete with terrapins, 
alligators, deer, and other game. In the depths of 
these swamps, beneath the shadows, of moss-covered 
trees and by the sides of the sluggish lagoons, large 
mounds are not infrequent. It is upon the islands, 



ANCIENT TUMULI IN GEORGIA. 



129 



however, and along the headlands of the coast, that they 
appear in greatest numbers. 

Take, for example, that group of more than forty 
mounds upon the Colonel's Island, in Liberty County, 
located in the vicinity of a large spring, which for un- 
numbered years has been sending forth its copious and 
refreshing waters. Besides the regular sepulchral 
tumuli composed of sand, the adjacent fields are liter- 
ally hoary with shell-mounds and the debris of long- 
continued encampments. Extended oyster-beds, neigh- 
boring creeks abounding with crabs, shrimp, and salt- 
water fish of every variety native to the coast, woods 
in former years well stocked with game, the natural 
advantages of a high, dry bluff sheltered from north- 
easterly gales, and this never-failing supply of fresh 
water, without doubt rendered this a very attractive 
spot to the Indian. His settlement here was perma- 
nent and extensive. Most of the tumuli in this neigh- 
borhood are sepulchral in their character. Such is 
the distinguishing peculiarity of nearly all the coast 
mounds. 

The ancient tumuli still extant within the geo- 
graphical limits of Georgia are frequently associated 
in groups, and at other times exist as isolated monu- 
ments erected upon or near localities possessing some 
natural advantages for observation, defence, or for the 
facile procurement of food. In form they are circular, 
elliptical, quadrangular, and polygonal. Some are flat 
on the top, resembling truncated pyramids and trun- 
cated cones. The prevailing type, however, is that of 
the conical earth-mound. There is every variety in 
size, from the large temple-mound on the Etowah — 
more than sixty-five feet high, and with a summit 
diameter of over two hundred feet — to the small sepul- 



130 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



chral tumulus whose existence can scarcely be recog- 
nized. Many are almost level with the ground, aud 
decomposing human bones, mingled with fragments of 
pottery, lie exposed upon the surface. Constructed of 
loose mould, clay, and sand, they are liable to constant 
diminution in size, and eventually to total obliteration. 
The consequence is, they are all more or less reduced, 
and we may readily believe that many of the smaller 
ones and those of oldest dates have entirely disap- 
peared. 

Aside from the careful and laborious prejDaration 
of their Chunky- Yards, 1 the construction of elevated 
foundations for their rotundas, and the erection of 
occasional and small tumuli above some deceased per- 
sons of note, it would appear that the Georgia tribes 
had well nigh abandoned the custom of mound-build- 
ing prior to the advent of the Europeans. In Plate 
XL. of the "Brevis Narratio" 8 we have a spirited 
rejjresentation of the ceremonies observed by the 
Florida Indians upon the occasion of the sepulture 
of their kings and priests. Located in. the vicinity of 
the village appears a small conical mound surmounted 
by the shell drinking-cup of the deceased, and sur- 
rounded by a row of arrows stuck in the ground. 
Gathered in a circle about this sepulchral tumulus 
the bereaved members of the tribe, upon bended 
knees, are bewailing the death of him in whose honor 
this grave-mound had been heaped up. 

Bartram 3 commemorates the fact that in his day 
the Choctaws covered the pyramid of coffins, taken 

1 See Bartram's " Creek and Cherokee Indians." " Transactions of the Amer- 
ican Ethnological Society," vol. iii., part 1, p. 52. 

2 Francoforti ad Moenum, De Bry. Anno 1591. 

3 "Travels," etc., pp. 514, 515. London, 1792. 



MOUND-BUILDING WITHIN" THE HISTORIC PERIOD. 131 

from the bone-house, with earth, thus raising " a coni- 
cal hill or mount." 

Tomo-chi-chi pointed out to General Oglethorpe a 
large conical mound near Savannah, in which he said 
the Yamacraw chief was interred, who had, many 
years before, entertained a great white man with a 
red beard, who entered the Savannah River in a large 
vessel, and in his barge came up to Yamacraw bluff. 1 

Within the range of my personal observation, 
glass beads, silver ornaments, hawk-bells, metallic ket- 
tles, and occasionally a rusty gun or rifle-barrel, have 
been found in earth mounds ; but they evidently be- 
longed to secondary interments, the graves in which 
they were located being either on the top or sides of 
the tumuli, and but a few feet deep. 

Only in one instance has the writer discovered any 
article of European manufacture interred with the 
dead in whose honor the mound was erected. Upon 
opening a small mound on the coast, a few miles* below 
Savannah, an earthen pot, several arrow-heads, a stone 
celt, and a portion of an old-fashioned sword, were 
seen in immediate association with the decayed bones 
of a human skeleton. This tumulus was conical in 
form, seven feet high, and about twenty feet in di- 
ameter at the base. It contained a single skeleton, 
and that lay, with the articles enumerated, at the bot- 
tom and on a level with the plain. The oak handle, 
most of the guard, and about seven inches of the 
blade of the weapon still remained. The rest had 
perished from rust. Strange to say, the oak had more 
effectually than the metal resisted the " gnawing tooth 
of time." This mound had never, prior to this occa- 

1 " History of the Province of Georgia," etc., by John Gerar William De 
Brahm, p. 38. Wormeloe, 1849. 



132 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



sion, been opened, or in any manner disturbed, except 
by the winds and rains of the changing seasons. The 
interment was primary, and the articles were lodged 
with the dead before this mound-tomb was heaped 
above him. 

It may be confidently asserted, therefore, that bur- 
ial-mounds were erected by the Southern Indians 
within the historic period ; but it is not clear that the 
modern tribes had ausdit to do with the construction 
of those larger tumuli, in form resembling truncated 
pyramids and truncated cones, sometimes terraced, fre- 
quently surrounded by a ditch or embankment, and 
intended for purposes other than those of sepulture. 

Whatever may have been the antecedent usages of 
the natives with respect to the erection of sepulchral 
tumuli, it is quite certain that their use was discon- 
tinued very shortly after the arrival of the colonists. 
Then, instead of being carefully disposed in the womb 
of the laboriously-constructed mound, the dead Avere 
exposed upon hastily-prepared scaffolds, hidden away 
in ledges of rocks, buried beneath the floors of their 
lodges, concealed in hollow trees, submerged in ponds, 
lakes and rivers, or interred in the forests with but 
ephemeral indicia to mark their last resting-places. 
When used at all by the later tribes, these ancient 
tumuli seem to have been employed as convenient 
localities for what we may call secoudary interments. 

It is safe to assert that most of the mounds ante- 
date the historic period. Compared with each other 
they differ materially in age. This is not to be won- 
dered at, when we remember that the occupancy 
of this region by the red race, if we credit their 
traditions and properly interpret the monuments 
which they have left behind them, must have lasted 



I 



ANTIQUITY OF THE TUMULI. 133 

for many generations. Some of these tumuli are 
not less than eight centuries old, while at least one, 
as we have already intimated, was thrown up after 
the European had visited the New World. In the 
absence of all definite information, the antiquity of 
these tumuli may be readily inferred from their lo- 
cation, internal evidence, and from the growth of the 
forest-trees which overshadow them. One of the 
noblest specimens of the live-oak we have ever seen 
grew upon the summit, and with its majestic arms 
threw a protecting influence above and around the 
entire mound ; the dead, nameless here for evermore ; 
his tomb a rude heap of native earth in the solitude 
of the wild- wood he once loved so well; his com- 
panions gone, his memory forgotten, and this pride of 
the forest seemingly a guardian of the consecrated 
spot, with its deep foliage affording an inviting retreat 
wherein the pleasant birds of spring might warble 
their morning and evening songs, its sturdy roots pre- 
serving the symmetry of the grave, its overarching 
branches defending its yielding form from the ruthless 
influences of the tempest. Attired in its garb of sober 
green, with its drapery of sombre moss swaying 
slowly and solemnly in the ambient air, it appeared 
an aged mourner watching over the dead of the chil- 
dren of the forest. 1 

If to the time probably consumed, in the actual 
construction of some of the largest tumuli, we add the 
period intervening between their completion and 
abandonment — the length of which, although entirely 
a matter of conjecture, could assuredly have been by 
no means inconsiderable — and then note the fact that, 

1 This live-oak was nearly ten fejt in diameter, and we know that it is a tree 
of slow growth. 



134 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

when first observed by the whites, they were deserted 
and overgrown with forest-trees apparently as. large 
as any which composed the surrounding forests — not 
forgetting the further circumstance, that the Indians 
who were domiciled here could impart to the inquir- 
ing European not even a tradition of the time when 
or of the peoples by whom they were built — in endeav- 
oring to ascertain their age, the mind is irresistibly 
led back to a remote date. 

That the peoples who once possessed the hydro- 
graphical basin of the Mississippi, and, departing, left 
behind them all along the banks of the Father of 
Waters, in the valleys of the Ohio, the Scioto and else- 
where, striking monuments of their labors, supersti- 
tions, and combined industry, at some remote period 
occupied at least some of the fertile valleys of Cher- 
okee, Middle and Western Georgia, is not improb- 
able. The location and physical peculiarities of some 
tumuli and enclosures, the character of the remains 
found in and near them, the presence of stone idols 
and metallic ornaments, and the traditions of modern 
Indians — who regarded them with commingled igno- 
ranee and wonder — unite in claiming for them not 
only a marked antiquity, but also a striking resem- 
blance to the monuments of the Mississippi Valley. 
When compared with mounds which we know to be 
the product of the labor of the ancestors of the pres- 
ent Indians, characteristic differences are observed, for 
w r hich we are sometimes at a loss satisfactorily to 
account. 

While it may be regarded as a matter of specula- 
tion whether the builders of the terraced mounds and 
enclosed works within the confines of Georgia were 
the actual progenitors of the Indians who occupied 



MOUKD— BUILDEES. 135 

this country when it was first visited by the Europe- 
an, and while we may not be able fully to explain how 
it came to pass that the later tribes were more nomadic 
in their habits, less patient of labor, and so neglect- 
ful of many of the customs which seemingly obtained 
among the peoples whose combined industry erected 
these enduring monuments — in the light of the Span- 
ish narratives, after a careful consideration of the rel- 
ics themselves, and in view of all the facts which have 
thus far been disclosed, both by personal observation 
and the investigation of others, while freely admitting 
that the modern Indians, from various causes, had 
ceased to engage in the erection of works in whose com- 
pletion, with the indifferent implements at command, 
so much tedious physical effort was involved, we nev- 
ertheless see no good reason for supposing that these 
more prominent tumuli and enclosures may not have 
been constructed in the olden time by peoples akin 
to and in the main by no means further advanced in 
semi-civilization than the red-men native here at the 
dawn of the historic period. In a word, we do not 
concur in the opinion, so often expressed, that the 
mound-builders were a race distinct from and supe- 
ior in art, government, and religion, to the Southern 
Indians of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 



V 



CHAPTER VI. 

Moumls on the Etowah River. — Temple for Sun-worship. — Stone Images. — Fish- 
preserves. — Tumuli in the Valley of Little Shoulder-bone Creek. — Circular 
Earth-work on the Head-waters of the Ogeechee. — Stone Tumulus near Sparta. 
— Mounds on the Savannah River. — Meeting between the Cacica of the Savan- 
nah and De Soto. 

Passing- from these general observations, we pro- 
ceed to consider the physical peculiarities of some of 
the most interesting and prominent groups of ancient 
mounds and enclosures within the present geographical 
limits of Georgia. 

The first we shall notice are located upon the right 
bank of the Etowah River, on the plantation of Colo- 
nel Lewis Tumlin, a few miles from Cartersville, in 
Bartow County. Viewed as a whole, this group is 
the most remarkable within the confines of the State. 
These mounds are situated in the midst of a beautiful 
and fertile valley. They occupy a central position in 
an area of some fifty acres, bounded on the south and 
east by the Etowah River, and on the north and west 
by a large ditch or artificial canal, which at its lower 
end communicates directly with the river. This moat 
(G G, Plate I.) at present varies in depth from five to 
twenty-five feet, and in width from twenty to seventy- 
five feet. No parapets or earth-walls appear upon its 
edges. Along its line are two reservoirs (D D), of 



Plate /. 




AM PHOTO LtTHOGPAPHlC CO. 1*1. OSBQRNiS P*tlC£S$ ) 



MOUNDS IN THE ETOWAH VALLEY. 137 

about an acre each, possessing an average depth of not 
less than twenty feet, and its upper end expands into 
an artificial pond (P), elliptical in form, and somewhat 
deeper than the excavations mentioned. 

Within the enclosure formed by this moat and the 
river are seven mounds. Three of them are preeminent 
in size, the one designated in the accompanying plan 
(Plate I) by the letter A, far surpassing the others 
both in its proportions and in the degree of interest 
which attaches to it. 

To the eye of the observer, as it rests for the first 
time upon its towering form, it seems a monument of 
the past ages, venerable in its antiquity, solemn, silent, 
and yet not voiceless, a remarkable exhibition of the 
power and industry of a former race. With its erection 
the modern hunter tribes, so far as our information 
extends, had naught to do. Composed of earth, sim- 
ple, yet impressive in form, it seems calculated for an 
almost endless duration. The soil, gravel, and smaller 
stones taken from the moat and the reservoirs were 
expended in the construction of these tumuli. The sur- 
face of the ground, for a considerable distance around 
the northern bases, was then removed and placed upon 
their summits. Viewed from the north, the valley dips 
toward the mounds, so that they appear to lift them- 
selves from out a basin. 

The central tumulus rises about sixty-five feet above 
the level of the valley. It is entirely artificial, consist- 
ing wholly of the earth taken from the moat and the 
excavations, in connection with the soil collected around 
its base. It has received no assistance whatever from 
any natural hill or elevation. 

In general outline it may be regarded as quadran- 
gular, if we disregard a slight angle to the south. That 



13S ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

taken into account, its form is pentagonal, with summit 
admeasurements as follows : length of northern side, one 
hundred and fifty feet ; length of eastern side, one 
hundred and sixty feet ; length of southeastern side,, 
one hundred feet ; length of southern side, ninety feet, 
and length of western side, one hundred feet. Meas- 
ured east and west, its longest apex diameter is two 
hundred and twenty-five feet; measured north and 
south, it falls a little short — being about two hundred 
and twenty feet. On its summit, this tumulus is nearly 
level. Shorn of the luxuriant vegetation and tall forest- 
trees which at one time crowned it on every side, the 
outlines of this mound stand in bold relief. Its angles 
are still sharply defined. The established approach to 
the top is from the east. Its ascent was accomplished 
through the intervention of terraces, rising one above 
the other — inclined planes leading from the one to the 
other. 1 These terraces are sixty-five feet in width, and 
extend from the mound toward the southeast. Near 
the eastern angle, a pathway leads to the top ; but it 
does not appear to have been intended for very gen- 
eral use. May it not have been designed for the priest- 
hood alone, while, assembled upon the broad terraces, 
the worshippers gave solemn heed to the religious 
ceremonies performed upon the eastern summit of this 
ancient temple \ 

East of this large central mound — and so near that 
their flanks meet and mingle — stands a smaller mound 
about thirty-five feet high, originally quadrangular, 
now nearly circular in form, and with a summit diame- 
ter of one hundred feet. From its western slope is an 
easy and immediate communication with the terraces of 

1 These inclined planes have been considerably worn away by the elements, so 
that this main approach reminds the observer of a broad, winding ramp. 



MOUNDS IN THE ETOWAH VALLEY. 139 

the central tumulus. This mound is designated in 
the accompanying plate "by the letter B. Two hun- 
dred and fifty feet in a westerly direction from this 
mound, and distant some sixty feet in a southerly di- 
rection from the central mound, is the third (C) and 
last of this immediate group. Pentagonal in form, it 
possesses an altitude of twenty-three feet. It is uni- 
formly level at the top, and its apex diameters, meas- 
ured at right angles, were, respectively, ninety-two and 
sixty-eight feet. 

East of this group, and within the enclosure, is a 
chain of four sepulchral mounds (F F F F) ovoidal 
in shape. Little individual interest attaches to them. 
Nothing, aside from their location in the vicinity of 
these larger tumuli and their being within the area 
formed by the canal and the river, distinguishes them 
from numerous earth-mounds scattered here and there 
throughout the length and breadth of the Etow^ah and 
Oostenaula Valleys. 

The artificial elevation E, lying northwest of the 
central group, is remarkable for its superficial area, 
and is completely surrounded by the moat which, at 
that point, divides with a view to its enclosure. The 
slope of the sides of these tumuli is just such as would 
be assumed by gradual accretions of earth successively 
deposited in small quantities from above. 

The summits of these mounds, and the circumjacent 
valley for miles, have been completely denuded of the 
original growth which overspread them in rich profu- 
sion. The consequence is, these remarkable remains 
can be readily and carefully noted. 

We marvel at the amount of labor expended in 
their construction, and conjecture that they are either 
the product of the combined energies of a population 



140 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



by no means inconsiderable, or else the representatives 
of the successive industry of perhaps several genera- 
tions. Of one fact we may be persuaded, that there 
was not, in the eighteenth century, a single Indian 
tribe in this vicinity possessing either the disposition 
or the means of subsistence sufficient to enable it to 
apply the unproductive labor necessary for the erec- 
tion of such works. Nor were the Cherokees in such 
a social or political status as would have empowered 
their chiefs to have compelled such an expenditure 
of the physical energies of their nations. Nomadic 
tribes, relying upon the bow and arrow for subsist- 
ence, and chanodn^ their seats under the influences 
of want and inclination, are loath to assume the erec- 
tion of such huge earth-works. We have the positive 
testimony of the Cherokees, that they had not even a 
tradition of the race by whom these tumuli had been 
reared. During the period of our acquaintance with 
them idol-worship did not exist among the Chero- 
kees ; and yet within this enclosure three stone idols 
have been found, and numerous terra-cot ta images 
fashioned after the similitude of man, beast, and bird. 
Of these stone idols it may be remarked, in passing, 
that two were cut from a dark sandstone, were respec- 
tively twelve and fifteen inches in height, and repre- 
sented the male human figure in a sitting posture — 
the knees drawn up almost upon a level with the chin, 
the hands resting upon either knee. The third, and 
the most carefully-sculptured Indian idol the writer 
has ever seen, was a female figure made of a dark 
talcose slate. As, in a subsequent chapter, our atten- 
tion will be specially directed to a somewhat careful 
examination of these and kindred antique images, and 
also to an inquiry into the nature and extent of idol- 



STONE— IMAGES. 



141 



worship as practised by the Southern Indians at a re- 
mote period, a more extended notice of these interest- 
ing relics is here pretermitted. 

Outliving the generations during which they were 
fashioned and perhaps invested with supernatural pow- 
ers, and surviving the incoming and the outgoing of 
subsequent nomadic tribes, .these stone images pre- 
serve the peculiar forms and expressions which were 
in that age of shadows traced by the hand of semi-civil- 
ized art upon the shapeless stone, and declare the 
former existence of peoples whose names are unknown, 
whose origin is the subject of mere conjecture, and 
whose history and customs are perpetuated simply 
by a few scattered remains which, in the deluge of 
time, like floating plants have escaped the general 
shipwreck. 

Unique specimens of idol-pipes, stone plates, large 
shell ornaments, and other relics not common among 
the Cherokees, confirm the impression that these tumuli 
were not the results of the labor of the modern In- 
dians. The large trees which grew upon these mounds 
when they were first visited by the early settlers, and 
their utterly abandoned condition at the period of our 
primal acquaintance with them, add forcible testi- 
mony in behalf of their decided antiquity. The great 
age of these structures is further demonstrated by the 
character of the works themselves, which are not the 
hastily-erected monuments of migrating bands, but 
the ruins of temples, areas, and burial-places, carefully 
considered, of massive dimensions, and indicating the 
consecutive, combined, and extensive labor of a consid- 
erable population permanently established. 

The eastern an^le of the central mound is very 
prominent, and the upper surface in that direction is 



142 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

more elevated. Just here have been found traces of 
hearths or altars, giving ample token of the continued 
presence of fire and perhaps of sacrifice. The terraces 
lie toward the east, and there is that about this tumu- 
lus which induces the belief that it was erected for 
religious purposes, and that upon its eastern summit 
religious rites were performed and oblations offered to 
the great divinity, the sun. The broad terraces and 
the adjacent dependent tumuli afforded space for the 
assembling of worshippers at the a]3pointed hour, 
when, from the elevated eastern summit of the large 
tumulus, the eye of the officiating priest caught the 
earliest rays of the rising sun, as, lifting his face from 
out the shadows of the distant hills, he smiled upon 
this beautiful valley. 

In the true relation of the vicissitudes which at- 
tended the Governor Don Hernando de Soto and some 
nobles of Portugal in the discovery of the province of 
Florida, 1 we are informed by the Gentleman of Elvas, 
that " on Wednesday, the nineteenth day of June, the 
Governor entered Pacaha, and took quarters in the 
town where the Cacique was accustomed to reside. It 
was enclosed, and very large. In the towers and the 
palisade were many loopholes. There was much dry 
maize, and the new was in great quantity throughout 
the fields. At the distance of half a league to a league 
off, were large towns, all of them surrounded with 
stockades. Where the Governor stayed was a great lake 
near to the enclosure ; and the water entered a ditch 
that well-nigh went round the town. From the River 
Grande to the lake was a canal, through which the fish 
came into it, and where the Chief kept them for his 

1 Buckingham Smith's translation, pp. 112, 113. Bradford Club Scries, No. 
5. New York, 1866. 



FISH-PRESERVES. 



143 



eating and pastime. With nets that were found in 
the place, as many were taken as need required ; and 
however much might be the casting, there was never 
any lack of them. . . . The Cacique of Casqui many 
times sent large presents of fish, shawls, and skins." 

While the earth removed in the construction of 
the ditch and excavations was primarily employed in 
the erection of the tumuli w r ithin the enclosure, while 
they may in one sense be regarded as the sources of 
the mounds, and while their sizes and depths were, to 
a certain extent, regulated by the supply of material 
requisite for the completion of the projected truncated 
pyramid — which we suppose to have been a temple — 
and its dependent mounds, we are of opinion that, dur- 
ing the progress of the entire work, direct reference 
was had to the final use of these excavations and 
of this canal as fish-preserves, whence the priests, ca- 
ciques, and noted personages of the nation, who prob- 
ably dwelt within the enclosure formed by the moat 
and the river, could at all seasons derive an abun- 
dant supply of fish. The canal leading from the ar- 
tificial pond in which it takes its rise, communicates 
directly with both reservoirs, and, after passing them, 
empties into the Etowah. Through this canal fishes 
could have been readily introduced from the river into 
all three of these artificial lakes, and there propagated. 
Cane or wooden wears — in such common use among 
the Southern Indians during the sixteenth century — 
would have prevented all escape, and thus these reser- 
voirs would have answered the purposes of fish-pre- 
serves. Such we believe them to have been. 

In the retired valley of Little Shoulder-Bone Creek, 
about nine miles from the village of Sparta, in Han- 
cock County, may be seen another group of ancient 



144 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

tumuli, 1 not unlike those we have just examined. Of 
the date of their construction, and of the peoples by 
whom they were erected, the Creeks and Cherokees 
professed utter ignorance. To the oft-repeated inquiry 
who were the authors of these monuments and when 
were they built, the uniform response of the red-men 
was, "We know not; our fathers found them here 
when they first possessed the land." 

From all these mounds the original forest-growth 
has been removed, and we are therefore denied the in- 
formation which would be derived from an examina- 
tion of the cortical layers of the venerable trees which 
formerly grew upon and overshadowed them after 
their abandonment by those to whose labors their ex- 
istence was due. Here and there upon their summits 
still exist mouldering stumps and roots, affording 
ample proof of the vigor and proportions of that 
growth which the industry of a later race has carefully 
removed. 

Approaching this series of tumuli from the west, 
the first which engages our attention (designated in the 
accompanying sketch by the letter G), in general out- 
line nearly resembles a truncated cone ; being slightly 
ovoidal, and with summit-diameters, measured east 
and west, and north and south, of, respectively, fifty- 
two and forty-two feet. Its base-diameter, running 
east and west, is one hundred and forty feet. Meas- 
ured at right angles, it falls a little short of this. 
Its present altitude is sixteen feet. 

One hundred and fifty yards east of this mound is 
the largest tumulus of the group (C). It is a trun- 
cated, pentagonal pyramid, its base-diameters, meas- 
ured north and south, and east aud west, being respec- 



1 Plate II. 



■Pi-cute JT. 




AM PHOTQ-UTHOGRAPHIC CO HXfOSBOHNES PROCESS ) 



TUMULI NEAR SPARTA, GEORGIA. 



145 



tively one hundred and eighty and one hundred and 
eighty-four feet. Its summit-diameters, ascertained in 
the same directions, are respectively eighty and eighty- 
eight feet. This mound is forty feet high. 

By a reference to its profile (L), it will be per- 
ceived that it is higher toward the east. The approach 
to the summit was from the east, and the eastern third 
of the superior surface was not only elevated above 
the rest, but was also made scrupulously level. Here, 
a little below the surface, have been found traces of a 
hearth composed of baked clay or rude brick. Charred 
fragments of wood and other indications attest the 
former continued existence of fires upon this spot. 

Considerable excavations have been made in the 
eastern slope. Composed, as it is, of the alluvial soil 
of the valley, the planters of the neighboring hills 
(entirely ignoring the claims of this ancient monu- 
ment to preservation and respect — we had almost 
added veneration — at the hands of a utilitarian age), 
in by-gone years frequently resorted to it as a conven- 
ient source of fertilization for their impoverished lands. 

This tumulus, so august in its proportions, has in 
its construction derived no aid from any natural hill 
or elevation. It stands apart, and in the midst of a- 
level valley. The slope of the sides is just such as 
would be assumed by the gradual accumulation of 
loose earth deposited from above. 

It is not improbable that the Indians used the 
summit and sides of this tumulus for the purposes of 
sepulture. Skeletons have been found near the surface, 
in a degree of preservation and possessing certain in- 
dicia which forbid the belief that their inhumation 
was coeval with the construction of the mound. 

The tumuli D, E, and F, appear to have been de- 
10 



14(3 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



signed and used exclusively as burial-inounds. For so 
many years have they been traversed by the plough- 
share, and wasted by the winds and rains, that they 
have doubtless lost much of their original proportions. 
Their surfaces are covered with fragments of human 
bones, and pottery, beads, arrow and spear heads, 
stone implements, stone ornaments, pipes, clay images, 
etc., etc. 

The mounds C, D, and E, are isolated by a moat or 
ditch, indicated by the letters B B. The total area 
thus enclosed is between four and five acres. An 
additional ditch separates the mound E from the 
other two ; and, at the point H, are traces of an exca- 
vation or reservoir/ from which a third ditch (K) 
leads to an adjacent small creek or stream emptying 
into Little Shoulder-Bone Creek. The earth taken 
from these moats or ditches, and removed in digging 
the reservoir, was expended in the erection of the tu- 
muli. There are no indications of embankments alon^ 
their edges. All trace of this moat will soon disap- 
pear, and marked changes have already occurred with- 
in the recollection of the older inhabitants. 

Within the enclosure, stone idols — similar in ap- 
pearance to those found in the valley of the Etowah — 
and clay images, resembling the human form in dis- 
torted shape and feature, and fashioned after the simili- 
tude of beasts and birds, have been gathered. 

The fact has been distinctly attested by early travel- 
lers, that the Indians of this region never worshipped 
idols. We have the further testimony that they not 
only never manufactured these symbols of pagan wor- 
ship, but emphatically disclaimed all knowledge of the 
people by whom they were made. Who, then, were 
these mound-builclers, and who the artificers that chis- 



TUMULI NEAR SPARTA, GEORGIA. 



147 



ellecl these rude stone images which did not fall clown 
from Jupiter ? 

Every indication suggests and encourages the be- 
lief that this locality was, for a long period of time, 
densely populated. The surface of the ground, not 
only within the enclosure, but up and down the val- 
ley for a considerable distance, is replete with various 
relics. They lie also, in considerable quantities, com- 
mingled with human bones, in the sepulchral mounds. 
Few and unsatisfactory are the memories which they 
suggest. Feeble indicia of general customs, they do 
little else than furnish physical proofs of the former 
existence of nameless peoples who, living without let- 
ters, have left behind them no legacies to history. 

The surface of the enclosure — saving the presence 
of the mounds — is very level, and from it have been 
carefully removed all stones, bowlders, and fragments 
of rock, with which other portions of the valley and 
the adjoining hill-sides abound. 

On Plunkett Creek, about three-quarters of a mile 
distant, is a mound twelve feet high, with a summit- 
diameter of forty feet and a base-diameter of one hun- 
dred and twenty-five feet. It is conical in shape, and 
its principal elevation is toward the east. Unlike the 
other tumuli in this valley, the present mound is 
mainly composed of fragments of rocks and stones ; 
and, apart from this fact, possesses no distinguishing 
peculiarity. Its profile is shown in Fig. 2, Plate II. 

Intermediate between this mound and the group 
which we have been considering, is an enclosed work, 
parallelogrammic in outline, containing an acre and a 
quarter. The ditch surrounding it is some four feet 
wide, and between three and four feet deep. (See Fig. 
3, Plate II.) 



148 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Upon the head-waters of the Great Ogeechee Kiv- 
er, five miles from Sparta, is an earth-work, circular in 
form, with a gate or opening terminating at the creek. 
The embankment is still nearly three feet high, and 
npon it are growing trees as large and, to all appear- 
ances, as old as any in the surrounding forest. {See 
Fig. 4, Plate II.) 

The belief is current in the neighborhood, that this 
work was an intrenched canrp of De Soto, but there is 
no satisfactory foundation for this impression. 

Located upon a high, rugged ridge, three miles 
from Sparta, and in a direction opposite to that which 
led us to the so-called " Spanish Fort," are the remains 
of a stone tumulus originally fifteen feet high, and 
twelve feet in diameter at its base, nearly resembling 
a sugar-loaf in form. It was composed exclusively of 
fragments of rocks, carefully piled one above the other. 
A few years since a planter, moved by curiosity, un- 
dertook the removal of this mound. The labor was but 
partially accomplished, and the only result attained 
was the almost total demolition of this unique little 
tumulus. (See Fig. 5, Plate II.) 

Tradition designates " Silver Bluff," or its vicinity, 
as the site of the ancient village of Cutifachiqui. 
There, if we rightly interpret the geography of the 
Fidalgo of Elvas, dwelt an Indian queen, young and 
attractive, who with royal hospitality welcomed to her 
capital and the freedom of her nation the adventu- 
rous De Soto and his daring companions, lone wander- 
ing and yet not lost amid the unbroken forests and 
howling wildernesses of a vast region hitherto un- 
trodden by the white man. The historian of the ex- 
pedition dwells at length and with evident satisfaction 
upon the reception extended by this Indian queen to 



THE CACICA OF CCTTFACIIIQUI. 



14 ( J 



the knightly Ferdinand. Learning from three captives 
that a woman held the sovereignty of this country, 
the General sent forward special messengers to her 
with offers of friendship. Her response of welcome 
was returned by her sister in person. Shortly after- 
ward the queen appeared in a stately canoe, with an 
awning in the poop supported by a lance. She sat 
upon two cushions, and was accompanied by a number 
of Indian women — her attendants and maids of honor. 
Many escorting canoes followed. Invested with all 
the pomp and dignity which the limited resources, of 
her age and race could throw around her, she crossed 
the Savannah River and approached the bank where 
the Spanish Cavalier waited to receive her. Respond- 
ing with ease, grace, and fervor, to his handsome ad- 
dress, she landed and conferred upon him many pres- 
ents — among them a pearl necklace, the beads of which 
are particularly mentioned as of great value and re- 
markable size. The next day the expedition crossed 
the Savannah River in canoes and on rafts, and found 
rest, food, and refreshment, in the wigwams and be- 
neath the wide-spreading mulberry-trees of the chosen 
town of the cacica. 

Upon the eve of his departure, De Soto arrested 
the queen and forced her to accompany him on his for- 
ward march to Chiaha. For seven long days was she 
compelled to travel on foot through a wretched coun- 
try, and it was not until the eighth day that she suc- 
ceeded in making her escape. During this unwilling 
journey with the Spaniards she is said to have carried 
a casket made of reeds, containing pearls of great 
value. These she preserved, and so apt did she prove 
in concealing herself within the shadows of her native 
forests, that she completely eluded the pursuit of the 



150 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Spaniards, who were most desirous of retaining her as 
a hostage for their safe conduct through the territories 
of the neighboring cassiques who rendered homage 
to her. 1 The narrative leaves her in the wilds of an 
unknown forest returning to her people and chosen 
abode; and it may be that one of the rude earth- 
mounds which tower along its banks, designates the 
last resting-place of the beautiful, the hospitable, the 
ill-treated queen of the Savannah. 

No storied urn or monumental bust, no epitaph 
deeply graven on enduring marble, no sepulchral col- 
umn, perpetuates her memory or her greatness ; and 
yet certain tumuli, sternly wrestling with all-subduing 
time, lonely and voiceless in this generation, even now 
repeat the story of the Indian queen, whose cordial 
welcome of and generous hospitality to the adventu- 
rous, travel-worn stranger, were requited by unkind- 
ness, ingratitude, and dishonor. 

In 1776, Mr. Bart rain states that there were in 
this vicinity what he is pleased to denominate Indian 
conical mounts, terraces, and areas, and also the re- 
mains or traces of fortresses which were supposed to 
be ancient camps of the Spaniards, who formerly fixed 
themselves at this place in the hope of finding silver. 2 

Four years afterward, to the local history of this 
region another chapter was added, whose incidents, 
authentic in their character, furnish a bright illustra- 
tion of those partisan adventures and patriotic exploits 
which not unfrequently signalized the conduct of the 
Southern campaign in the days of the good and great 
General Greene. 

1 Roberts' "Florida," pp. 47, 48. London, 1*763. "Narratives of the Career 
of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 62., et seq. New 
York, 1866. 

" Travels," etc., p. 313. London, 1792. 



CAPTURE OF FORT GALPHIN. 



151 



The annual royal present to the Indians, consisting 
of powder, ball, small-arms, liquor, salt, blankets, and 
other articles of which the impoverished Continentals 
stood most sadly in need, was, in May, 1780, on de- 
posit at Fort Galphin, about twelve miles below Au- 
gusta, on the north side of the Savannah River, await- 
ing distribution. Colonel Brown's force at Augusta 
had been reduced by the detail of two companies of 
infantry, detached to guard this present. They were 
at that time stationed in the Stockade Fort at this 
point. Made aware of this fact through the vigilance 
of his scouts, carefully concealing his movement, and 
leaving his artillery and the tired of his battalion be- 
hind under command of Eaton, Lieutenant-Colonel 
Lee determined to press forward at once and secure 
these much-coveted supplies for the American camp. 
Mounting a detachment of infantry behind his dra- 
goons, by forced marches and without the knowledge 
of the enemy, on the 21st of May, 1780, he halted his 
panting squadrons beneath the pines which skirted 
the field in which Fort Galphin was located. The day 
was excessively sultry, and men and animals were so 
oppressed by heat and overcome by thirst, that his lit- 
•tle column was for the time incapable of further exer- 
tion. 

After a short rest, Colonel Lee directed his dis- 
mounted militia to make, unobserved, the circuit of 
the fort, and to attack it from a point opposite to that 
which he then occupied. This strategy was invoked 
under the impression that the garrison would be drawn 
from the fort in the pursuit of these few militiamen, 
and thus its capture, by a rapid assault under his im- 
mediate supervision, insured beyond a question. As 
was expected, so soon as the militia debouched from 



152 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN IKDIANS. 

the woods, the garrison flew to arms, and, rushing from 
the fort, pursued the militia, who, at first resisting 
feebly, quickly retired— their retreat being covered by 
some cavalry previously disposed for that purpose. 
At this juncture a rapid advance under Captain Ru- 
dolph was ordered, and the assaulting column easily 
gained possession of the fort. 

In the language of the author of the " Memoirs of 
the War in the Southern Department," " the garrison, 
with the valuable deposit in its safe keeping, gave a 
rich reward for our toils and sufferings." 1 

An old brick house still stands which witnessed the 
j>rowess of the gallant cavalry colonel and his brave 
troopers on that sultry May morning. 

But it is not of this old brick house with its Revolu- 
tionary memories, nor of the bright blade of the Vir- 
ginia chieftain, that we speak. It is not our purpose to 
pursue the track of the Spanish expedition, or to recount 
the traditions of the locality. Our object is simply to 
chronicle the existence and perpetuate the recollection 
of the prominent physical peculiarities of a marked 
group of ancient tumuli resting upon the left bank of 
the Savannah River, some twelve or fifteen miles by 
water below the city of Augusta. Thirty-five years* 
ago this group numbered six mounds, but the restless 
river, with recurring freshets, encroaching steadily upon 
the Carolina shore, has already rolled its turbid waters 
over two of them, while other two have so far yielded 
to the levelling influences of the ploughshare as to be 
almost entirely obliterated. Consequently but two re- 
main, and they only in major part, one-third of each 
having been washed away by the current ; and the day 
is probably not far distant when tradition only will 



1 Vol. ii., p. 89, et seq. Philadelphia, 1812. 



7>lateM. 




AM. PHOTOLITHOGRAPHIC CO NT. ,OSB0HHiS PffOCESS.' 



TUMULI ON MASON'S PLANTATION. 



153 



designate the spot once memorable in the annals of a 
former race as the site of monuments of unusual size 
and interest. 

These tumuli are located on Mason's Plantation, 
upon the very edge of the Savannah Elver, and in the 
midst of the wide, deep swamp, which here on either 
hank stretches away for miles, exhibiting one uniform, 
level, alluvial surface. What was once a mighty forest, 
grand and impenetrable in its majestic trees and tan- 
gled brakes, is now a rich cornfield whose harvests 
have for many years with a yield of a hundred-fold 
rewarded the toil of the intelligent husbandman. The 
surrounding space being thus denuded of its original 
growth, the tumuli loom up in uninterrupted propor- 
tions, while from the river, which has wellnigh cut 
them in twain, the observer enjoys a most favorable 
opportunity, as presented by their perpendicular fronts, 
for closely examining their physical composition. Fresh- 
ets have performed what it would have required long 
days of toil to have accomplished, and even then the 
work would not have been done half so well. It is sad 
to realize, however, that these encroachments which at 
present bring hidden things to view, and enable the 
examiner to pursue his investigations with facility, are 
dooming the objects themselves to early and absolute 
annihilation. Some forest-trees, chiefly beech and lo- 
cust, still crown the summits and flanks of these frag- 
mentary mounds trembling upon the brink of the re- 
morseless river. 

The largest tumulus, designated in the accompany- 
ing sketch by the letter A (Plate III.)? rises thirty- 
seven feet above the plain, and forty-seven above the 
water-line as it existed at the date of this visit. Meas- 
ured east and west, its summit diameter was fifty-eight 



154 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

feet, while, in consequence of the encroachment of the 
river, when measured in a northerly and southerly 
direction, it fell a little short of thirty-eight feet. Its 
base-diameter, ascertained in an easterly and west- 
wardly direction, was one hundred and eighty-five feet. 
Although its outlines have been somewhat marred by 
the whirling eddies of the river, as its swelling waters, 
in the spring of the year gathering marvellous volume 
and impetus, have again and again swept by, inundat- 
ing the entire swamp-region, this tumulus may be 
truthfully described as a truncated cone — its sides 
sloping gently and evenly, and its apex surface level. 
If terraces ever existed, they are no longer apparent. 
The western flank of this mound was extended for a 
distance some twenty yards or more beyond the point 
where it would otherwise have terminated, respect be- 

ino* had to the configuration of the eastern and SOUth- 
^D O 

ern slopes. About two feet below the present surface 
of this extension is a continuous layer of charcoal, 
baked earth, ashes, broken potteiy, shells, and bones. 
This layer is about twelve inches thick. So far as our 
examination extended — and it was but partial — the 
admixture of human bones was very slight — the bones, 
of which there were vast numbers, consisting of those of 
animals and birds native to this region. One is at a 
loss to explain the existence of this stratum of charcoal, 
ashes, shells, fragmentary pottery and bones, unless 
upon the hypothesis that it comprises the debris of a 
long-seated encampment or permanent abode of the 
aborigines upon this little bluff. This stratum can be 
traced along the water-front of the mound, as though 
it existed prior to its construction. The superincum- 
bent mass of earth seems to have been heaped above it. 
Where it penetrates the tumulus, it is wellnigh coinci- 



TUMULI ON MASON'S PLANTATION. 



155 



dent with a prolongation of what was at the time the 
surface of the surrounding swamp. 

The mound itself is composed of the alluvium of 
the adjacent field, which is a micaceous clay, richly 
impregnated with vegetable mould. No traces of in- 
humation could be perceived, and the composition of 
the tumulus was homogeneous as far as ascertained. 

It is earnestly hoped that some one will carefully 
note from time to time the encroachments of the river, 
as in all likelihood the central portions of this mound 
will soon be laid bare, and then, its contents, if any, 
will be fully disclosed. Thus will an oj^port unity be 
afforded for a most satisfactory examination. 

One hundred and twenty-five feet due east of this 
large tumulus, is the smaller mound designated by the 
letter B. Its appearance, general outline and composi- 
tion, are so nearly analogous to those of the larger 
mound, that a specific description is scarcely neces- 
sary. It may be remarked, however, that, possessing 
a base-diameter of one hundred and fourteen feet, it 
rises fifteen feet above the surface of the ground and 
twenty-five feet above the level of the river. 1 

It will be perceived by a reference to the accom- 
panying sketch (Plate III.), that these tumuli were, in 
days long since numbered with an unrecorded past, 
isolated by a moat (C C), whose traces are still quite 
observable. The enclosed space — the river forming 
the northern boundary — contains a conjectured area of 
about eight acres. Commencing at the river, east- 
wardly of the smaller mound and distant from its 
flank some thirty yards, this ditch extends in a south- 
erly direction until it merges into what now seems to 

1 For profiles of these tumuli, see letters F and G, Plate III. The water-line is 
represented by H. 



156 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

be a natural lagoon (D). Following this in a westward- 
ly course, it finally leaves it, and thence runs almost due 
north to the river into which it empties at a remove of 
about eighty yards from the western flank of the larger 
tumulus. Here the communication with the river is 
still perfect, but the upper mouth of this moat is now 
dry. It varies in width from twenty to forty feet, 
and is in some parts wider still. 1 

In all probability the earth removed in the con- 
struction of this canal was devoted to the erection of 
these tumuli ; and there are here and there in their 
vicinity physical evidences of the fact that the sur- 
rounding soil contributed to their further elevation. 
Terra-cotta vases, pots and pans, arrow and spear 
heads, stone articles of use and ornament, mortars, 
pipes, and bone and shell beads, are found in the 
adjacent fields, but there lives not a tradition of the 
time when, and of the tribes by whom, these tumuli 
were built. Lonely, storm-beaten, freshet-torn, they 
stand nameless and without a history in this genera- 
tion — silent, } 7 et convincing illustrations of the ephem- 
eral character of the nomadic races which for centuries 
peopled this entire region, and, departing, left behind 
them neither letters nor monuments of art — nothing 
save these rude earth-mounds and occasional relics to 
give assurance of their former existence. 

In the twilight of what by-gone and unrecorded 
century were these tumuli built ? Whence came, and 
who the peoples that lifted them from out the bosom 
of our common mother ? Served they as friendly ref- 
uge in seasons of freshet and of storm ? Were sacred 
fires ever kindled upon your summits and within this 
consecrated area ? Within your hidden depths do the 



1 This also ma)" have been a fish-preserve. 



TUMULI ON MASON'S PLANTATION. 



157 



brave and honored of your generation sleep that sleep 
which knows no waking until the final trump shall 
summon alike the civilized and the savage to the last 
award ? Or are ye simple watch-towers, deserted of 
your sentinels — forts, abandoned of your defenders? 
We question, but there are no voices of the past in 
the ambient air. We search among these tombs, but 
they bear no epitaphs. The sacred fires, if ever kin- 
dled, were turned into ashes long ago, and naught but 
darkness is here. We gaze upon these monuments, 
but they are inscriptionless, and the Savannah rolling 
its swollen waters about them will soon sweep even 
these mute earth-mounds out of existence. For a few 
short moments this tawny-hued river will grow more 
turbid with the dissolving mass of native clay, and 
then, borne away upon its bosom, and settling darkly 
in the depths of this swiftly-moving stream, nothing 
will evermore be seen of these august witnesses of the 
memorable meeting between the Spanish Adventurer 
and the Cacica of the Savannah. 



CHAPTER VII. 



Tumuli ou the Ocmulgee River, opposite Macon. — Brown's Mount. — Mound on 
Messier s Plantation, in Early County. 

Of the mounds on the left bank of the Ocmulgee 
River, opposite the city of Macon, the largest and most 
noteworthy (A, Plate IV.), lying farthest down the 
river, is located upon the summit of a natural hill, and 
occupies a commanding position. The earth of which 
it is conrposed was gathered in the valley and con- 
veyed to the top of the hill so as, in the end, to in- 
crease its elevation by some forty-five or fifty feet. 
The summit diameters of this tumulus, measured north 
and south, and east and west, are respectively one hun- 
dred and eighty and two hundred feet. On the west 
is an artificial plateau, still about eight feet high, 
seventy-two feet long and ninety-three feet wide. On 
the north and east are three spurs or elevated ap- 
proaches, over which, as paths, the laborers, during 
the construction of the mound, carried their burdens 
of sand and clay in cane baskets, and, by means of 
which, when the tumulus was completed, ascent to its 
summit was rendered more facile. It is not improba- 
ble that this was a temple-mound, used by priests and 
devotees in their established worship of the sun. 




it. o o J <rvt 



AM PHOTO -LITHOGRAPHIC CO.HYCOSBORHEi PftOCCSS.: 



TUMULI NEAR MACON, GEORGIA. 



159 



One hundred feet north of this tumulus is a second 
mound (B) about ten feet high, elliptical in shape, 
with a summit-diameter, measured in the direction of 
the major axis, of one hundred and twenty-eight feet. 
Northwest of this mound and distant between three 
and four hundred yards, is the third of the group (C), 
its outlines marred by the elements, and its northern 
slope carried away by the excavation for the new track 
of the Central Railway. It is still about forty feet 
high and is conical in form — its mean summit-diameter 
being about eighty-two feet. On its top is the decayed 
stump of a tree, more than five feet thick. 

About four hundred yards in a northeasterly direc- 
tion is the last tumulus of this series (D). In general 
characteristics it closely resembles the mound last 
mentioned. These mounds are all flat, and may be 
described as truncated cones, with the exception of the 
temple-mound, which assimilates the form of an oc- 
tagonal, truncated pyramid. The temple-mound was 
erected for religious purposes ; the others were heaped 
up, probably, in honor of the dead. In their vicinity 
the fields are filled with sherds, shells of the pearl- 
bearing unio, and fragments of articles of ancient do- 
mestic economy. Upon the acclivity east of the cen- 
tral mound are the manifest remains of an aboriginal 
settlement. Here, in excavating for the new track of 
the^ Central Railway, the workmen a short time since 
unearthed, a few feet below the surface, several skele- 
tons, in connection with which were found beads of 
shell and porcelain, a part of a discoidal stone, several 
arrow and spear points, two stone celts, a clay pipe, an 
earthen pot, and other matters of a primitive character 
fashioned for use or ornament. 

This excavation for the line of the railway neces- 



160 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

sitated the removal of a considerable portion of the 
northern side of the central monnd. In the condnct 
of this work, the laborers, while cutting through 
the slope of the mound, and at a depth of perhaps 
three feet below the superior surface, exhumed several 
skulls, regular in outline and possessing the ordinary- 
characteristics of American crania. Associated with 
these skeletons were stone implements — the handiwork 
of the red race— and Venetian beads and copper hawk- 
bells acquired through commercial intercourse with 
the early traders and voyagers. The fact was patent 
that at least some of these inhumations had occurred 
subsequent to the period of primal contact between 
the European and the Indian. 

Passing below these interments — which were evi- 
dently secondary in their character — and arriving at 
the bottom of the mound, a skull was obtained which 
differed most essentially from those we have described 
as belonging to a later inhumation. It was vastly older 
than those of the secondary interments, and had been 
artificially distorted to such an extent that the cerebel- 
lum was quite obliterated, while the front portion of 
the skull had not only been flattened but irregularly 
compressed, so as to cause an undue elevation and di- 
vergence to the left. 

For the purposes of comparison we have (in Plate 
IV.-A) figured two skulls, the first (1) being that of 
a modern Indian buried upon the side of the mound 
only a few feet below the surface ; the other, the crani- 
um of the primitive man in whose honor the tumulus 
was constructed. Of this latter skull we have both a 
front and side view (Figs. 2 and 3, Plate IV.-A). 

Among the relics found in the vicinity of this old, 
artificially-compressed skull, was a total absence of 




AM. PHOT0-HTH0GRAPH1CCO. NYA OSBORNES PROCESS.' 



PEIMAEY AND SECOND AEY INTERMENTS, 161 

European ornaments. Here we have an interesting 
demonstration of the fact that these ancient tumuli 
were, in turn, used by tribes who perhaps had no 
knowledge the one of the other. The flattened and dis- 
torted skull belongs to the mound-building people to 
whose industry the erection of these tumuli is to be 
referred. It was in perpetuation and in honor of 
such primal sepulture that this mound was heaped up. 
In the course of time these sepulchral and temple 
structures, abandoned of their owners, passed into the 
hands of other and later red races, who buried their 
dead upon the superior surface and along the slopes of 
these ancient tumuli, having at the time, perchance, no 
personal acquaintance with, and frequently not even a * 
distinct tradition of, the peoples to whose exertions these 
evidences of early constructive skill were attributable. 

In the absence of letters and of recorded memories 
most easily does one wave of human life sweep over 
another, obliterating all former recollections save such 
as are lodged in the womb of mounds, or preserved in 
the generous bosom of mother esMh : 

" The very generations of the dead 
Are swept away, and tomb inherits tomb, 
Until the memory of an age is fled, 
And, buried, sinks beneath its offspring's doom." 1 

The Creeks did not claim that these tumuli were 
erected by them. They declared that they were here 
when their ancestors first possessed themselves of the 
region. Who these flat-head mound-builders were, is 
matter for conjecture. It may be that they were a 
colony of the Natchez, journeying hither from their 
old habitat on the banks of the Mississippi. Certain 



11 



1 " Don Juan," eanto iv., cii. 



162 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



it is, that these tumuli antedate the traditions of the 
Creeks who were native here at the period of the Eng- 
lish colonization. 

Below these mounds- — in the valley-lands of the 
Ocmulgee, upon Lamar's plantation — are several large 
tumuli. The presence of these mounds, and the nu- 
merous relics scattered throughout the length and 
breadth of the valley for miles, afford ample testimony 
that this rich alluvial soil was once the seat of a 
numerous and, perhaps, permanent population. The 
debris of frequent encampments along the bluffs of 
the river prove that the aborigines, during the lapsed 
centuries, congregated here in numbers for fishing; and 
• hunting ; and old clearings in the valley give evidence 
that they supported themselves in part by the cultiva- 
tion of maize. 

The many unio-shells overlying the surface of the 
fields and intermingled with the refuse piles of former 
encampments, corroborate the fidelity of the Spanish 
narratives and furnish present physical assurance that 
the natives of this region carefully collected these shells 
that the animals which they contained might serve as 
food, and their valves, so iridescent with pearly nacre, 
afford material for the manufacture of beads, gorgets, 
and other ornaments. From them, also, were pearls 
obtained, which the Indians perforated with heated 
copper spindles that they might be strung and worn as 
necklaces, armlets, anklets, and about the shoulders and 
waist. 

The presence of gorgets, made of marine shells, and 
numerous columns of the strombus gigas, some in an 
imperfect condition, and others entirely finished and 
perforated longitudinally so that they could be used 
as pendants, attest the commerce which existed be- 



ANCIENT FORTIFICATION ON BROW ITS MOUNT. 16# 



tween the coast Indians and those occupying the in- 
terior. 

" Beown's Mount," situated on the line between 
Bibb and Twiggs Counties, from its summit affords a 
fine view of the city of Macon, while, from its western 
exposure, which is very precipitous, the eye ranges all 
over the Ocmulgee Basin and across the country far 
away to the valley of the Flint River. 

Following the natural conformation of the summit 
boundaries, and at some points retired a distance of 
twenty yards or more from the edge of the hill, are the 
remains of an old wall — constructed of bowlders of rock, 
and earth — which encircled and fortified the entire top 
of the mount. About sixty acres, I am informed, are 
thus enclosed. Attendant upon 'the wall are traces of 
both an outside and an inside ditch, the former being 
originally about ten feet wide and four feet deep, and 
the latter some three feet wide and between two and 
three feet deep. The earth removed in the construc- 
tion of these ditches was used, in conjunction with the 
stone-bowlders, in building this wall. Within the rec- 
ollection of persons still living, this wall was four feet 
high, and between four and five feet in thickness. It 
will be perceived that the height of the wall was practi- 
cally increased by the depth of the interior ditch ; so 
that the defenders standing in the ditch would be com- 
pletely protected from the shafts of their assailants. 

The defensive abilities of this circumvallation were 
augmented by elevated platforms and lunettes con- 
structed all along the line at intervals of about thirty 
yards. The interior dimensions of these lunettes may 
be expressed by ten feet in front and eight feet in 
depth. By this arrangement, at close intervals, the 
defenders were thrown in advance of the line ; and, 



164 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

elevated upon platforms, were enabled not only to de- 
liver a powerful direct fire, but also with their arrows 
and spears to enfilade the main line, thereby securing 
a double advantage in case of attack, and affording 
material aid to those who were defending the wall or 
curtains connecting these advanced works. 

In some places the wall has become well-nigh ob- 
literated ; at other points it is still quite distinct, and 
its entire circuit, as well as the outlines of the lunettes, 
can be traced all along the crest of the hill. Upon the 
wall, trees are growing more than three feet in diam- 
eter. This was, without doubt, the work of the red- 
men, and in ancient times constituted a fortified re- 
treat. Similar structures exist within the limits of 
Georgia and in many j>ortions of the United States. 
It will be remembered that, in the absence of any 
speedier mode of transmitting intelligence, the Indians 
signalled by means of fires kindled upon prominent 
points. Through their intervention the ajyproach of 
danger was heralded, and the lurid warning quickly 
repeated until the members of the tribe, through all 
their abodes, were rapidly put upon the alert. Such 
is the location of Brown's Mount, and so abrupt and 
commanding its exposure on the west, that signal-fires 
kindled there could be readily seen and interpreted 
even by the primitive dwellers upon the banks of Flint 
River. From the side which looks toward Macon kin- 
dred warnings — cloudy pillars of smoke by day and 
bright flames by night — would quickly summon the 
warriors of the Upper Ocmulgee, and put those, who 
there inhabited, upon notice. Doubtless, during the 
forgotten past, this fortified hill answered important 
military uses in the conduct of the ever-recurring strifes 
which existed among the red-men. 



ANCIENT FORTIFICATION ON BROWN'S MOUNT. 165 



The impression, entertained by some, that this cir- 
cumvallation was the work of De Soto and his follow- 
ers, is erroneous. 

Within the enclosure are the traces of two small 
earth-mounds, and near the northeastern side is a pond 
or basin, elliptical in form, covering about a quarter of 
an acre. Of late years it has been drained, and at the 
time of my visit it contained no water. The statement 
was made that this was an artificial basin and that its 
bottom had been plastered with clay at some remote 
period, so as the more effectually to retain the rain-water 
which would, from time to time, accumulate in it. I 
had no means at command for making an examination, 
and testing the truth of this assertion. The pond was 
overgrown with trees, and tilled with decayed leaves 
and loam. To all appearances, it seemed a natural res- 
ervoir, although it may be that the natives originally 
made this excavation with a view to supplying them- 
selves with water in the event of a siege. The natural 
supply of this fluid, upon ordinary occasions, was prob- 
ably derived from four springs issuing from the north- 
ern, eastern, southern, and western faces of the hill — 
in each instance, within not much more than fifty 
yards of the wall. Indications still exist tending to 
establish the fact that the paths leading to at least 
some of these springs were protected by stone walls or 
partially-covered ways. The summit of this hill is 
well adapted to cultivation, and, in one locality, I ob- 
served a circular depression, about forty feet in di- 
ameter, which suggested the belief that it might be 
the former site of one of those semi-sunken public gran- 
aries in use among the Southern Indians, of which the 
early historians have given us substantial descrip- 
tions. 



166 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS, 



In the first volume of Pickett's " History of Ala- 
bama " 1 may be found a sketch, and also a description 
of a group of mounds on the plantation of Mr. Messier, 
in Early County, Georgia, Both have been repro- 
duced without variation, or subsequent verification, in 
White's "Historical Collections of Georgia," 2 The 
unusual, haycock appearance of these tumuli and the 
prim, sharply-defined circumvallation have always 
seemed extravagant, and encouraged the belief that the 
plan and accompanying explanation had been carelessly 
prepared, and were in the main erroneous. Impressed 
with this conviction, and being unable to make a per- 
sonal examination of the locality, the author requested 
Major James Audley Maxwell — a well-known and 
skilful civil engineer — to visit the spot and favor him 
with an accurate survey of such ancient earth-works as 
were now to be seen. This he has kindly done, and to 
him are we indebted for the following plan and de- 
scription conveying a correct idea of the present condi- 
tion of these interesting evidences of early construc- 
tive skill. It will be readily noted how widely the 
impressions of an intelligent engineer differ from the 
notions of a casual observer. 

The Messier Mound — so called because situated on 
the plantation of Mr. Messier, of Early County — is lo- 
cated about twelve miles east of the Chattahoochee Riv- 
er, and from the summit of a hill looks down upon the 
narrow valley of the Little Colomokee Creek. Crown- 
ing the natural hill with an artificial elevation of fifty- 
five feet, from its top is afforded a commanding view of 
the surrounding country. In the vicinity of this tumu- 
lus and stretchins: away to the west, are seen the culti- 



1 Page 168. 

2 Page 425. 



Charleston, 1851. 
Xew York, 1S54. 



MOOTD IN EAELY COUNTY, GEORGIA. 



1G7 



vated fields of Mr. Messier, while on the east, north, and 
south, are the swamps of Colomokee and its tributaries, 
beautiful in the luxuriant and variegated foliage native 
to this semi-tropical region. The most facile approach 
to the mound is from the west, access from any other 
quarter being rendered difficult by natural obstacles not 
easily overcome. The Messier mound is not one of a 
group, but stands apart, prominent in size and marked 
in its physical peculiarities. Other tumuli exist in the 
vicinity, one of them near enough to appear on the 
scale of the accompanying map ; but none of these 
smaller mounds differ in any essential respect from the 
numerous hemispherical heaps of earth erected as 
burial-places by the Indians who formerly inhabited 
Southwestern Georgia and Southeastern Alabama. 
Tradition, speaking through the mouths of the de- 
scendants of early European settlers, declares that the 
modern Indians lived here in large numbers, and that, 
while claiming; the smaller mounds as the last resting- 
places of their noted dead, they regarded the great 
mound with commingled wonder, ignorance, and su- 
perstition. This traditional testimony is confirmed by 
the presence of numerous arrow and spear heads, frag- 
ments of pottery, pipes, and other relics of the skill 
and industry of the red race. Whether viewed near 
by or from a distance, the large tumulus seems but a 
huo;e mass of foliage — the outlines of this earthwork 
being concealed by leafy terraces of huge trees cover- 
ing the sides aucl growing along the slopes from base 
to summit. The top of the mound is a level plane, 
and was lono- since denuded of all vegetation for the 
purpose of cultivation. Beneath the trees a tangled 
undergrowth of vines, bushes, and briers, in inex- 
tricable confusion, forms an inviting retreat for the 



168 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

rabbit and the rattlesnake. It is only at some risk, 
and with indefatigable industry that the exact form of 
this huo;e earthwork can be determined. While it is 
not singular that cursory observers should have 
formed erroneous impressions on this point, it is re- 
markable and worthy of condemnation that the results 
of such careless examinations should have been public- 
ly heralded as conveying proper impressions of this 
interesting monument. 

The form of this mound is that of the frustum of a 
four-sided pyramid; the top surface a level plane — a 
rectangular parallelogram — the north and south sides 
being each sixty-six feet in length, and the east and 
west sides each one hundred and fifty-six feet long. 
The base-jDiane is not precisely level, but declines 
somewhat from the north toward the south, so that 
the vertical height of the mound at the northeast and 
northwest corners is fifty-three feet, while the vertical 
height at the southeast and southwest corners is fifty- 
seven feet. The northern boundary of the base of this 
pyramid is one hundred and eighty-eight feet long — the 
southern boundary about one hundred and ninety- 
eight feet, while the eastern and western boundaries are 
each three hundred and twenty-four feet. The slope of 
the east, west, and south sides is about one and a quar- 
ter to one — or steeper than the natural slope of earth 
— while the north side slopes rather more than one and 
a half to one, which is about the natural slope of the 
earth of which this mound is composed. The foregoing 
description, in connection with the map and profiles (see 
Plate V.), cannot fail to convey an accurate conception 
of the shape of this mound. It must be remembered, 
however, that no earthwork can be said to conform 
precisely to any mathematical figure. The angles are 




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AM. PHOTO LITHOGRAPHIC CONTfOSBOftNlS PffOCtSS 



MOUND IN EARLY COUNTY, GEORGIA. 169 

always more or less rounded, and the slopes and sur- 
faces to a greater or less degree convex or concave. 
The form of this mound agrees as accurately with the 
description given as does that of any modern earthwork 
with the shape prescribed by the civil engineer. The 
slopes are even more perfect than those of railway em- 
bankments. The fact that they are steeper than the 
natural slope must be explained upon the hypothesis 
of superior construction— as by the thorough packing 
of the earth in successive, thin layers. The greatest de- 
parture from mathematical conformity to the pyramid 
occurs at the angles, which are rounded by curves of 
from five to fifteen feet in length. This may have 
been the result of design rather than the effect of 
time. Along the northeastern and northwestern an- 
gles the ascent to the top may most conveniently be 
made, but there are no indications of any special pro- 
vision for this purpose. There are no terraces. The 
space contained between the south side of the mound 
and the moat — easily recognized upon the map by 
its resemblance, in form, to the segment of a circle — is 
not a terrace. However important the use to wdiich this 
space may have been dedicated, it possesses no digni- 
fied elevation, but ajyparently occupies the same level 
with the original surface upon which the mound was 
erected. It is said that long ago a cavernous open- 
ing in the southern slope of the mound was visible 
opposite the centre of this segment-like space, but 
there is now no indication that such an opening ever 
existed. 

This tumulus contains about seventy-five thousand 
cubic yards of earth, and would weigh from ninety 
thousand to one hundred thousand tons. By means 
of modern appliances its erection could be compassed 



170 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



at a cost of some fifty thousand dollars, provided the 
earth was taken from the excavations from which the 
ancient mound- buil ders obtained it. The industrious 
labor of one thousand savages, properly applied for 
the space of one year, would have accomplished the 
work with the aid of baskets or even earthen-ware 
pots for the transfer of the earth. These figures may 
or may not engender disaj)pointment. We naturally 
incline to the marvellous, and if the reader expresses 
surprise, let him compare the result with the scanty 
means then at command — the effect with the appar- 
ently meagre cause. 

We turn now to the surroundings of this huge 
tumulus. On the west lies a level plain well suited 
for the wigwams and streets of an Indian village — 
for play-grounds and fields both for manly exercise 
and the cultivation of maize. On the remaining sides 
the ground descends toward the neighboring streams, 
but there is no abrupt declivity from the immediate 
edge of the mound. For a distance of two hundred 
feet on the south, four hundred on the east, and seven 
hundred on the north, the natural plain is interrupted 
only by artificial excavations. These are A B the 
moat, BCD the ditch, and E F G the pit, from all 
of which earth was taken and used in the construction 
of the mound. 

From B to C the ditch is remarkably regular in 
form, and will average twelve feet in depth, ten feet 
in width at the bottom, and thirty feet in width at the 
top. At the point C this ditch, as described, ceases ab- 
ruptly, and here commences a small ditch only two 
feet deep — apparently a natural channel worn by de. 
scending rain-water — deepening and widening until 
it reaches the edge of the swamp at D. From B to C 



MOUND IN EAELY COUNTY, GEOEGTA. 17 1 

this ditch is clearly artificial : from C to D it is seem- 
ingly not so. We should not positively conclude, how- 
ever, that this ditch did not originally extend to the 
creek. From C to D a large ditch would naturally, 
with the lapse of time, become smaller in consequence 
of the constant accumulation of sand and clay brought 
down by the water. From B to C on the contrary, 
the ditch would receive no water except such as fell 
into its open mouth, and would preserve its outlines. 
No indications remain suggesting that this ditch was 
formerly a covered way. 

The moat — so called for want of a better name — is 
simply a prolongation of the ditch from B to A in the 
form shown in the accompanying sketch (Plate V.). 
From B to A it becomes uniformly wider and shallow- 
er. At B, it is ten feet deep ; at A two feet deep ; and, 
half-way between those points, its depth does not ex- 
ceed six feet. It is not probable that its original form 
and depth have materially changed. The slopes are so 
gradual that midway between the points A and B a 
buggy and horse can be driven across. There is noth- 
ing remarkable about the segment-shaped space lying 
between the moat and the mound except its regularity 
of outline. 

The ditch and moat furnished ? earth sufficient to 
raise the mound to an altitude of only one foot. The 
rest of the material used in its construction was taken 
from the great pit E F G, which, although not accu- 
rately measured, seemed just large enough to have 
furnished the required quantity. Its area is about two 
acres, and its average depth twenty-five feet, with easy 
slopes on the side nearest the mound. At the point 
E, however, the descent is perpendicular, and here an 
immense circular well, sixty feet in diameter and forty 



172 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



feet deep, may still be seen, clearly defined in all its 
parts. The' bottom of this well is fifteen feet below 
the bottom of the pit, so that when the water in the 
well rises above the level of the bottom of the pit it 
flows off through the pit toward the point G, where 
this artificial excavation connects with a natural gorge 
in which rises and flows a small stream of never-failing 
water. The original head of this gorge was at G, and 
the location of the pit was doubtless selected with a 
view to draining off, through this natural channel, the 
water which would necessarily accumulate in the pit 
during the process of its construction and materially 
retard the prosecution of the work. For this purpose 
the excavation was commenced at G, and progressed 
toward E, the water passing off in a direction oppo- 
site to that in which the labor proceeded. 

It is said that there formerly existed, and still re- 
main in th*e vicinity, lines of earthwork a mile in length, 
but the writer could find no one able to point them 
out. Consequently he has not attempted to locate 
them on the map. South of the mound, at and from 
m to n, along the steep slope of the hill, the surface 
of the ground has been washed into numerous gullies 
in which may be found many fragments of human 
bones. These are exposed after every heavy rain, 
but they are so old and in such a decayed condi- 
tion that they soon crumble into dust. The prob- 
ability is that the side of the hill in this direction was 
extensively used for the purposes of sepulture. Some 
years ago a well was dug from the top of the mound, 
passing along its centre, to the depth of fifty feet. This 
investigation was not undertaken in the interest of 
science, but with the hope of finding precious metals 
and valuable stones. Disappointed in their expecta- 



MOUND IN EAELY COUNTY, GEOEGIA. 173 

tions, tlie workmen subsequently closed this opening ; 
and from them no useful information has Tbeen gathered 
touching the contents and stratification of the tumulus. 

Arrow and spear heads, stone axes, fragments of 
quartz — not native to this region — and numerous 
sherds of earthen vessels, variously and fancifully or- 
namented, lie scattered upon the surface of the ground, 
and are turned up by the ploughshare in every direction. 

Before the writer visited this mound he had formed 
a theory with regard to the method of its construction, 
which a careful examination compelled him to reject. 
Had he enjoyed the" honor of serving as engineer-in- 
chief to his Majesty the King of the Mound-builders ? 
he would have suggested the selection of a hill like 
that represented by the heavy broken line in Fig. 4, 
Plate V. The earth taken from the dotted areas ' on 
either side, and placed so as to form the truncated 
pyramid indicated by the continuous line, would have 
produced a mound as large as the Messier mound, at 
an expenditure of only one-tenth the labor. The Mes- 
sier mound has received, however, no assistance what- 
ever from any such device. It is entirely artificial, 
and the suggestion is named in this connection sim- 
ply because it may turn out, upon the examination of 
other large tumuli, that they may have been built 
after this fashion. 

^ White-oaks — some of them more than nine feet in 
circumference — are growing upon the sides of this 
mound. Their annual rings were not counted, nor is 
it known how many generations of forest-trees may 
have lived and died upon this tumulus, each giving 
its tribute of soil to the surface, since the date of its 
abandonment by those who compassed its erection. 
If any superior stratum of baked earth, or any traces 



174 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

of sacrificial altars once existed upon the summit, they 
are not now exposed to view. 1 

In the opinion of the writer, the Messier mound 
was erected not for defensive purposes, but as a temple 
for the solemnization of religious rites — probably for 
the worship of the sun. The erection of earth-walls in 
the vicinity was designed to facilitate the security and 
defence of a locality upon which so much labor had 
been expended by these primitive peoples. These are 
incidental, however, and subordinate to the jjrimal 
object, which was the construction of this huge mound- 
temple. As a defensive work this tumulus is well 
located, although its position is much inferior to many 
others which might be suggested in the neighbor- 
hood. 

It appears probable that in ancient times there 
existed an underground communication between the 
well E and the mound. That well contains water 
now, and in all likelihood has never been dry. 

Evidently these ditches and excavations were origi- 
nally the sources whence was procured earth required 
for the erection of the mound. To what secondary 
uses they may subsequently have been dedicated must 
remain a matter of conjecture. In the religious festi- 
vals of these primitive peoples ablutions subserved an 

1 In the description of this mouud furnished by Dr. Charles A. Woodruff to 
Mr. Pickett, more than twenty years ago, and published by him in his history of 
Alabama, hearth-stones are mentioned on the summit, with fragments of charred 
wood about them. These may have been indicative of sacrificial uses, or they may 
have been simply the places where the Creeks in later years kindled their signal-fires 
or cooked their daily food. The forest-trees then growing upon the mound were 
stated by Dr. Woodruff to be from four to five hundred years old. Of the earth- 
wall enclosing the mound, Major Maxwell found no trace. " The arched passage, 
three hundred yards in length, leading from the large mound to the creek, and 
probably intended to procure water for religious purposes," spoken of by Dr. 
Woodruff, was probably nothing more than the segment-shaped moat and ditch 
described by Major Maxwell. 



MOUND IN EAELY COUNTY, GEOEGIA. 



175 



important part, and the convenient presence of water 
was deemed essential. What precise significance may 
have been attached to its conveyance, in a particular 
way, to the neighborhood of the temple-mound is now 
unknown. In the event of an attack, a liberal supply 
of this indispensable fluid was absolutely necessary ; 
and it may be that in the location of the large reser- 
voir and of the moat, respect was had to this contingen- 
cy likely to occur at any moment in view of the preda- 
tory habits of many of the tribes which, at that remote 
period, migrating hither and thither, sought to dis- 
possess present owners of chosen seats which pleased 
their rude fancies or seemed most prodigal of those 
stores upon which they mainly depended for subsist- 
ence. We conclude with one other suggestion, and it 
is this, that the large excavation and the semicircular 
moat may have been used as fish-preserves. We have 
already noted the fact that the Southern Indians, in 
the olden time, were in the habit of breeding fishes in 
artificial ponds, capturing them with nets of their own 
manufacture as occasion required. 

We might multiply examples, for they exist in 
various localities, but enough has, we trust, already 
been said, to convey a correct impression of the dis- 
tinguishing: characteristics of the ancient tumuli be- 
longing to the class to which our attention has been 
directed. 

Upon even a cursory examination of these groups 
of mounds with their attendant ditches, earth-walls, and 
fish-preserves, it is difficult to resist the impression 
that they are the remains of peoples more patient of 
labor and in some respects superior to the nomadic 
tribes which, within the memory of the whites, clung 
around and devoted to secondary uses these long- 



176 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

deserted monuments. There is not a considerable 
stream within the limits of Georgia in whose valleys 
tumuli of this sort are not to be found. They appear 
in Florida, and are very frequent in Alabama, where 
truncated pyramids are even more abundant. Ten- 
nessee, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Louisiana, are 
dotted with interesting monuments of this class. The 
occupation of this entire region by these mound-build- 
ing peoples was by no means inconsiderable. It is in 
fertile valleys and upon the alluvial river-flats, whose 
soil afforded ample scope for agricultural pursuits, that 
these tumuli are mainly seen. Why the older Indian 
tribes should have erected monuments so much more 
substantial and imposing than those which were con- 
structed by the modern Indians, it is difficult to an- 
swer. The Cherokees and Creeks did not, in many 
things, equal the aborigines of the sixteenth century 
as described by the historians of the expeditions. 
"Whence the cause of this evident decadence in in- 
dustry, craft, and power ? Can it be that the burdens 
imposed, the desolations wrought, and the diseases 
introduced among the natives by the Spaniards, con- 
tributed to this demoralization? Time was, if we 
may fairly judge from the ajDpearance and manifest 
uses of some of these more august tumuli and their 
attendant relics, when those who built and cared for 
them held a position at least somewhat in advance of 
the later Indian tribes. Forniiug permanent settle, 
ments, they devoted themselves to agricultural pur- 
suits, erected temples, fortified localities, worshipped 
the sun, possessed idols, wrought largely in stone, 
fashioned ornaments of foreign shells, and occasionally 
of gold, used copper implements, and were not entirely 
improvident of the future. Such was the fertility of 



MOUND IN EAELY COUNTY, GEOEGIA. 



177 



the localities most thickly peopled by thein, so pleas- 
ant the climate, and so abundant the supply of game, 
that these ancient settlers were in great measure 
relieved from that stern struggle which, among no- 
madic tribes and under more inhospitable skies, con- 
stitutes the great battle with Nature for life. With 
but few temptations to wander, except as their num- 
bers increased, they seemingly devoted much attention 
to establishing their temples, protecting their settle- 
ments, and confirming their chosen seats. And yet 
they were not exempt from the vicissitudes which 
have befallen greater and more civilized nations — re- 
verses born of the cupidity and cruelty of strangers, 
losses and positive destruction encountered at the 
hands of despoiling barbarians. It may be that they 
were compelled to abandon their valley-homes in con- 
sequence of the incursions of more warlike peoples. 

Certain it is that the inroads of the Spaniards 
violently shocked this primitive population, imparting 
new ideas, interrupting established customs, overturn- 
ing acknowledged government, impoverishing whole 
districts, engendering a sense of insecurity until that 
time unknown, causing marked changes, and entailing 
losses and demoralizations perhaps far more potent 
than we are inclined, at first thought, to believe. 

12 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Chunky- Yards. — Elevated Spaces. — Mounds of Observation and Retreat. — Tumuli 
on Woolfolk's Plantation. — Sepulchral Tumuli. — Chieftain-Mounds. — Custom 
of burying Personal Property with the Dead. — Savannah owes a Monument 
to Tomo-chi-chi. — Family or Tribal Mounds.— Cremation. 

Responding to certain inquiries (propounded in all 
likelihood by Dr. B. S. Barton) touching his personal 
observation of the customs, government, and antiquities 
of the Creek and Cherokee Indians, Mr. "William Bar- 
tram furnished the following plan and description of 
the Chunky- Yaeds (see p. 179). 

" The Chunky - Yard of the Creeks, so called by 
the traders, is a cubi-form area (A) generally in 
the centre of the town — the Public Square (located 
upon the square eminence C) and the Rotunda 
or great winter Council-House (situated upon the 
mound B, nine or ten feet high) standing at the two 
opposite corners. It is generally very extensive, es- 
pecially in the large, old towns, is exactly level, and 
sunk two, sometimes three feet below the banks or 
terraces (b b b b) surrounding it, which are sometimes 
two, one above and behind the other, and are formed 
of earth cast out of the area at the time of its forma- 
tion ; these banks or terraces serve the purposes of 
seats for the spectators. In the centre of the yard 



CHUNKY- YARDS. 



179 



there is a low circular mount or eminence (c), in the 
centre of which stands erect the chunky-pole, which is a 
high obelisk, or four-square pillar declining upwards 
to an obtuse point, in shape and proportion much re- 
sembling the ancient Egyptian obelisk This is of 



Fig. 2. 




wood — the heart or inward resinous part of the sound 
pine-tree — and is very durable ; it is generally from 
thirty to forty feet high, and to the top of this is fast- 
ened some object to shoot at with bows and arrows, 
the rifle, etc., at certain times appointed. Near each 
corner of the lower and further end of the yard stands 
erect a less pillar, or pole (d d), about twelve feet 
high : these are called the slave-posts, because to them 
are bound the captives condemned to be burnt, and 
these posts are usually decorated with the scalps of their 
slain enemies : the scalps, with the hair on them, and 



ISO ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIAN'S. 

strained on a little hoop, usually five or six inches in 
width, are suspended by a string six or seven inches in 
length round about the top of the pole, where they re- 
main as long as they last. I have seen some that have 
been there so long as to lose all the hair, and the skin 
remaining white as parchment or paper. The pole 
is usually crowned with the white dry skull of an 
enemy. In some of these towns I have counted six or 
eight scalps fluttering on one pole in these yards. 
Thus it appears evidently enough that this area is de- 
signed for a public place of exhibition of shows and 
games, and formerly some of the scenes were of the 
most tragical and barbarous nature, as torturing the 
miserable captives with fire in various ways, as causing 
or forcing them to run the gauntlet naked, chunked 
and beat almost to death with burning chunks and 
fire-brands, and at last burnt to ashes. 

"I inquired of the traders for what reason this 
area was called the chunhy-yard y they were in gen- 
eral, ignorant, yet they all seemed to agree in a lame 
story of its originating from its being the place where 
the Indians formerly put to death and tortured their 
captives, or from the Indian name for it, which bears 
such a signification. 

" The Indians do not now (1773-1789) torture their 
captives after that cruel manner as formerly ; but there 
are some old traders who have been present at the 
burning of captives. 

" I observed no chunky-yards, chunky-pole, or slave- 
posts, in use in any of the Cherokee towns ; and when 
I have mentioned in my journal chunky-yards in the 
Cherokee country, it must be understood that I have 
seen the remains or vestiges of them in the ancient 
ruins of towns ; for in the present Cherokee towns 



CHOTKY-YAEDS. 



181 



that I visited, though there were the ancient mounts 
and signs of the yard adjoining, yet the yard was 
either built upon or turned into a garden-spot, or the 
like. 

" Indeed, I am convinced that the chunky-yards now 
or lately in use among the Creeks are of very ancient 
date — not the formation of the present Indians. But 
in most towns they are cleaned out and kept in re- 
pair, being swept very clean every day, and the poles 
kept up and decorated in the manner I have men- 
tioned." 1 

The physical traces of these chunky-yards are still 
extant in various portions of the State of Georgia. In 
the southwestern part of the State the forms of these 
tumuli and enclosed areas, and their relative positions 
in association with the outlines of the general settle- 
ment, are in some instances quite observable. There 
are also spaces, parallelogramic in shape, elevated from 
two to four feet above the surface of the ground, uni- 
formly level at the top and free from irregularities, 
which apparently were designed as play-grounds. 
Some of these were rendered hard by an admixture of 
clay and would have afforded excellent opportunity 
for rolling the discoidal stones which contributed so 
largely to the amusement and gaming proclivities not 
only of the Southern, but also, of many of the other 
North American Indians. We will have occasion, in 
a subsequent part of this work, to notice more particu- 
larly the use of these discoidal stones. 

In order to facilitate the rapid communication of 
intelligence, upon an emergency, the Southern In- 
dians erected conical earth-mounds upon commanding 



1 Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. Hi., part 1, pp. 34- 
36, 51, 52. New York, 1853. 



182 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

points, such as the tops of hills, or elevated river- 
-bluffs. Fires kindled upon their summits could 
Ibe readily recognized and interpreted. The signals 
thus given were repeated from the tops of kindred 
mounds within convenient distances; and so, in the 
absence of the warning bugle-note, the sound of drum, 
the booming of cannon, and the passage of the electric 
spark, within a short period an entire tribe could be 
put upon the alert. These Mounds of Observation 
are recognized by their peculiar situations, and from 
the further fact that they contain nothing other than 
the traces of the fires once kindled upon them now 
underlying the roots of overshadowing trees. 

Striking examples of this class of mounds may be 
seen on Woolfolk's plantation, on the Chattahoochee 
River a few miles below Columbus, and at other 
points along the line of that river. Some years since, 
one of the largest was used to construct a heavy dam, 
and nothing was found in it save a shell drinking-cup 
and bits of charcoal. These tumuli are located with 
direct reference to the facile transmission of signals 
along the reaches in the river, and are so disposed that 
fires kindled upon their summits may be readily seen 
from a distance, and repeated. Situated in the river- 
swamp — which is liable to annual overflow — they 
served as safe retreats for the natives during freshets. 
On various occasions have the field-hands and planta- 
tion-animals sought refuge upon the summit of the 
large truncated mound which stands just in rear of the 
negro quarters on this valuable place. Many tumuli 
of a like character might be mentioned, but these will 
serve as examples. 

It was the remark of Ulloa, " If we have seen one 
American, we may be said to have seen all, their color 



CHIEFTAIN— MOUNDS. 



183 



and make are so nearly alike." So might we affirm, 
in a general way, of the sepulchral monuments of the 
Georgia tribes. Although assimilated by many ob 
vious resemblances, for the purposes of our present 
description, they may be considered as resolving them- 
selves into one or the other of the following classes. 

Tumuli contaioing a single skeleton, or at most 
two or three skeletons, we designate Chieftain- 
Mounds. The erection of such tumuli by the Florida 
Indians in honor of their deceased caciques and priests, 
is mentioned in the " Brevis Narratio." 1 Such mounds, 
varying in height from five to twenty-five feet, are 
found in many localities, and usually occupy promi- 
nent positions in the vicinity of the spot which con- 
stituted the village-site. They are for the most part 
conical in form, and the human bones which they con- 
tain do not indicate the action of fire. Not infre- 
quently the dead was interred in a sitting posture. 

Such was the case in a large mound carefully opened 
by the writer upon the Colonel's Island. The corpse 
had evidently been placed upon the ground and held 
in position while the loose sand was heaped around 
and above. In the neighborhood of the feet and hands 
were numerous bone and shell-beads which, at the time 
of the inhumation, encircled the wrists, arms and an- 
kles. Near the skeleton lay three stone axes, several 
spear and arrow heads, two pipes of rather unusual 
size — one of clay and the other of steatite — and a ter- 
ra-cotta bowl, the property of the deceased at the pe- 
riod of his death. 

In another mound the body had first been seated in 
the centre of the spot to be surmounted by the tumu- 
lus, and there, with his possessions deposited by his 



1 Plate xl. Francoforti ad Moenuni. De Bit, anno 1591. 



184 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

side, was securely encased in a covering of tenacious 
red clay, six or eight inches in thickness, and oven- 
shaped. In this manner — the clay becoming dry and 
hard — the sitting posture was maintained while the 
earth-tomb was heaped above. 

Sometimes a stout light-wood post was first driven 
into the ground, and the dead, seated with their backs 
to the post, were securely lashed to it by means of 
thongs or grape-vines. Two instances of this sort 
have been brought to our knowledge. In one mound 
a single skeleton was found at the foot of the post. 
In the other the remains of three skeletons appeared, 
back to back, the post being in the centre. 

Captain Bossu 1 informs us that the Alibamons 
buried their dead in a sitting posture, stating, in 
justification of the custom, that man being upright, 
should have his head turned toward heaven, which was 
to be his habitation. " They give to them," he con- 
tinues, u a calumet and some tobacco to smoke, that 
they may make peace with the inhabitants of the other 
world. If the corpse be of a warrior, he is buried with 
his arms, which are a musket, some powder and bullets, 
a quiver full of arrows, a bow, and a hatchet, or club ; 
and besides these a mirror and some vermilion, with 
which they may dress themselves in the other world." 

Upright burials are said, by Surveyor-General 
Lawson, 3 to have been practised by the Carolina In- 
dians. 

In preparing their dead for sepulture, the Musco- 
gulges placed the corpses in a sitting posture, deposit- 
ing with them such articles of property as were held 
of greatest value. 8 In celebrating the funeral rites of 

5 " Travels through Louisiana," etc., vol. i., p. 257. London, 1771. 
! " History of Carolina," etc., p. 182. London, 1714. 
8 Bartram's " Travels," etc., p. 513. London, 1792. 



PERSONAL PROPERTY BURIED WITH THE DEAD. 185 

a chieftain, the Cherokees seated the corpse in the 
tomb with the face turned toward the east, the head 
anointed with bear's oil, and the countenance painted 
red. He was attired in his finest apparel, " having 
his gun and pouch, and trusty hiccory bow, with a 
young panther's skin, full of arrows, alongside of 
him, and every other useful thing he had been pos- 
sessed of." 1 

The practice of depositing in the grave all articles 
which the deceased deemed most valuable, obtained 
among all the Southern tribes. It has been truthfully 
remarked that "in all ages when the disengaged ac- 
tivity of man ever carries a keen and military edge 
with it, and his great employment is necessarily war 
and the chase, the weapons of both would naturally be 
deposited with the dead." 

The ancient Germans contributed to the funeral 
pile the arms and the horse of the deceased. Among 
the more civilized Grecians expensive vases, mirrors, 
and ornaments were lodged in the tombs of the de- 
parted. The grave has often proved the receptacle 
of treasure, and the storehouse of all that was most 
valuable among the possessions of the deceased. 
The souls of the Scythian kings and the Peruvian 
Incas were, by costly immolations, richly furnished 
forth with companions, the most select, for the other- 
wise lonely journey. Even the sepulchre of David 
was made the thesaurus of more than three thousand 
talents. 3 In a strange land this custom was not neg- 
lected by the Indian. During the visit of Tomo-chi- 
chi to England, in 1734, one of his companions died in 
London, of the small-pox. Previous to interment in 



1 Adair's "History of the American Indians," p. 182. London, 1775. 
3 Squier's " Antiquities of Xew York," p. 114. Buffalo, 1851. 



186 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

the church-yard of St. John's, Westminster, the body 
was sewn up in a blanket and bound between two 
boards. The clothes of the deceased, with a quantity 
of glass beads, some pieces of silver, and other articles 
of personal property, were thrown into the grave and 
buried with him. 

The Spaniards under De Soto obtained large 
quantities of pearls by rifling the tombs, and pil- 
laging the temples in which dead Indian chiefs were 
lying in state. The later graves which the Cherokees 
have left in Northern Georgia assure ns of the fact that 
this custom of depositing with the dead all articles of 
value, the property of the deceased, was observed long- 
after the establishment of commercial intercourse be- 
tween the Indians and the Europeans. We are also 
advised that these deposits were held sacred, and that 
among these tribes the graves of the departed, no 
matter how rich in coveted treasure they might have 
been, were never rifled. 

It is to the graves of the common dead and the 
tumuli erected in honor of departed chieftains, priests, 
and distinguished warriors, that we are largely indebted 
for many of the most interesting and perfect relics 
which grace our collections, and acquaint us with the 
condition of the arts among these primitive peoples. 

Returning from this digression, we may assert that 
these chieftain-mounds, when once completed, were 
never reopened for the reception of other bodies. The 
fact that, as a general rule, only a single skeleton is 
found in these mounds, and the further circumstance 
of their prominent size and location, very properly, we 
think, designate them as the last resting-places of the 
chiefs or distinguished personages of the tribe. Upon 
this supposition we are enabled the more readily to 



CHIEFTAIN-MOUNDS. 



understand the secret of their superior proportions. 
They may be regarded as the offering of the tribe or 
community — each member with ready hand assisting 
in erecting over the deceased leader a mound which, 
while it perpetuated the name and deeds of the 
honored dead and remained a monument of tribal 
respect and gratitude, begat also a pleasing satisfaction 
in the breast of all who had aided in its construction. 
Each of these silent, wasted mounds had its legends 
transmitted from sire to son, its heroic memories which 
brought the warm blood of conscious pride to the 
cheek alike of warrior and maiden ; but they have all 
perished with those whose delight it was to perpetuate 
them. 

These chieftain or priest mounds may be considered 
as individual in their character, the result of one im- 
pulse, the consummation of a general labor prosecuted 
without intermission to completion. When we affirm 
that when once finished they were never reopened to 
admit the sepulture of parties other than those in 
whose honor they were erected, we take no note of 
those secondary interments, frequently occurring upon 
the tops and sides, which were probably made by 
later peoples, strangers to the original and distinctive 
memories of these tumuli. 

Composed of sand, clay, mould, and sometimes 
of shells, the slope of their sides is such as would be 
assumed by the gradual accumulation of loose material 
piled from above. Often pits and sunken spaces in 
the immediate neighborhood indicate the localities 
whence was obtained the earth expended in their 
construction. 

These primitive peoples were at one time careful 
in the erection of marked tumuli above deceased kings 



1S8 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS 

and priests. "With inferior means at command, they 
perpetuated "by physical signs the memories of the 
places where they slept with far greater zeal than did 
the Europeans the graves of the greatest of the red- 
men who had proved themselves invaluable allies, and 
through whose influence an infant colony was pre- 
served, in the midst of a howling wilderness, from 
cruel attack and absolute massacre. 

Near Yamacraw bluff— a spot rendered memorable 
by the landing of General Oglethorpe, the founder of 
the colony of Georgia — Tomo-chi-chi, Mico of the Yam- 
acraws, extended the open hand of welcome to the dis- 
tinguished stranger, and took upon himself vows of 
friendship which he never ceased to observe until he 
bowed his hoary head in death not far from the 
ancient pines beneath w T hose hospitable shade the 
governor first pitched his tent. In the presence of the 
colonists,- few, feeble and filled with doubts and ap- 
prehensions — before his followers brave and jealous 
of their moss-clad forests, in a manner at once expres- 
sive of genuine hospitality and redolent of that im- 
agination so characteristic of his race, he presented 
General Oglethorpe with a buffalo-skin adorned with 
the head and feathers of an eagle. " The eagle," said 
he, " is an emblem of speed, and the buffalo of strength. 
The English are as swift as the bird and as powerful 
as the beast, since like the former they flew over the 
seas to the uttermost parts of the earth, and like the 
latter are so strong that nothing can withstand them." 
Wisely divining in this small band the seeds of a great 
nation whose superior intelligence and resources were 
destined to exercise a controlling influence over his 
people, he added ; " The features of the eagle are soft 
and signify love ; the buffalo-skin is warm and denotes 



BUEIAL OF T03I0 -CHI-CHI. 



169 



protection ; therefore I Lope the English will love and 
protect the little families of the sods of the forest." 

Firm in his friendship, even unto the end, at the 
advanced age of ninety-seven he "breathed his last ; 
and, dying, desired that his body might be interred 
anions; his friends, the English, in Savannah. This 
request was complied with, and he was buried with 
military honors in Percival Square. 1 

It may appropriately be asked, Where is his 
monument ? Over this mico, the white men — those 
whom he counselled, assisted, and saved, and their 
descendants — have reared not even a simple mound - 
tomb. To them did he confide the solemnization of 
his funeral rites and the perpetuation of his last 
resting-place, and they have paid no tribute to the 
memory of his grave. Of such neglect, think we, 
would not they have been guilty whose primal wrath 
against the early colonists was, through the persua- 
sions and influence of this aged mico, turned into 
friendship. 

To herself and the recollections of her infant days, 
to the expressed wishes of General Oglethorpe who 
purposed the erection of a suitable shaft in honor of 
this departed king, as an honest acknowledgment of 
the debt for which she stands bound to her first and 
best friend among the red-men, does Savannah owe 
a fitting monument to the brave, the generous, the 
noble-hearted Indian chief, the venerable Tomo-chi-chi. 

Tumuli filled with numerous skeletons may be 
regarded as Family or Tklbal Morxns. The Indians 
of Southern Georgia frequently burnt their dead. 

1 C. C. Jones, Jr. " Historical Sketch of Tomo-chi-chi," pp. 120-127. Albany, 
X. Y., 186S. 

44 Plan of the City of Savannah and its Fortification, by John G/erar William De 
Brahm," p. 86 of " History of the Province of Georgia,"' etc. Wornisloe, 1849. 



190 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



This custom, however, was not universal, and it ob- 
tained to a very limited extent anions the tribes resi- 
dent in the middle and upper portions of the State. 
The practice of reserving the skeletons until they had 
multiplied sufficiently to warrant a general cremation 
or inhumation seems to have been adopted. 

It was no easy task for the aborigines to erect a 
tumulus. Hence, saving: the construction of grave- 
mounds in honor of distinguished personages, the labor 
of sepulchral mound-building was postponed until the 
accumulations of the bone-house claimed the attention 
of an entire community. Adair says that the bones of 
those who died away from home or were slain in 
battle were carefully preserved and, at some conven- 
ient season, brought back and interred in a solemn 
manner. To be deprived of the customary rites of 
sepulture was a calamity which an Indian could not 
contemplate with indifference. 

Funeral rites the Eomans called justa, the Greeks 
hUaia, therebv intimating the inviolable obligation 
which Nature imposed upon the living to perform the 
obsequies of the dead. As among these civilized 
nations the belief existed that the souls of the departed 
could not be admitted into the Elysian fields unless 
suitable funeral rites had been duly solemnized, in 
like manner did the red-men cherish the faith that 
a becoming observance of their rude obsequies was 
essential to the entrance of their spirits into the hunt- 
ing-grounds of the blest. Here we have an explana- 
tion of the reason why they so carefully, in that remote 
period, collected the skeletons of their dead and laid 
them to rest in the burial-places of their kindred. 

Bartrani noticed among the Choctaws the follow- 
ing funeral custom: (, As scon as a person is dead, 



FUNEKAL CUSTOMS OF THE CHOCTAWS. 191 

they erect a scaffold eighteen or twenty feet high, 
in a grove adjacent to the town, where they lay the 
corpse, lightly covered with a mantle. Here it is 
suffered to remain, visited and protected by the friends 
and relations, until the flesh becomes putrid, so as 
easily to part from the bones; then undertakers, who 
make it their business, carefully strip the flesh from 
the bones, wash and cleanse them, and, when dry and 
purified by the air, having provided a curiously- 
wrought chest or coffin, fabricated of bones and splints, 
they place all the bones therein. It is then deposited 
in the bone-house — a building erected for that purpose 
in every town. "When this house is full, a general, 
solemn funeral takes place. The nearest kindred or 
friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair 
to the bone-house, take up the respective cofhns, and, 
following one another in the order of seniority— the 
nearest relations and connexions attending their re- 
spective corpse, and the multitude following after 
them — all, as one family, with united voice of alter- 
nate Allelujah and lamentation, slowly proceed to the 
place of general interment, where they place the cof- 
fins in order, forming a pyramid ; and lastly cover all 
over with earth, which raises a conical hill or mount." 1 

These observations of Mr. Bartram are fully cor- 
roborated by the statements of Captain Bossu, 2 Mr. 
Adair, 3 and others. 

Upon the islands and headlands along the coast, 
the skeletons, with a requisite amount of wood, were 
first placed in a pile upon the ground. Fire was then 
applied, and, above the smouldering remains carelessly 

1 "Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., pp. 514, 515. 
London, 1792. 

3 "Travels through Louisiana," etc., vol. i., pp. 298, 299. London, 1111. 
8 " History of the American Indians," pp. 183, et seq. Loudon, 1775. 



192 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTIIEKN INDIANS. 



Leaped together, a mound of earth was erected. The 
charred bones and partially-consumed fragments of wood 
are seldom seen until we have reached the level of the 
plain upon which the tumulus stands. With rare ex- 
ceptions, tribal mounds of this description contain but 
a single stratum of bones, showing that when the 
cremation was ended and the tumulus finished, it was 
never reopened. As may well be expected, the bones 
in these mounds are disposed without order. Being 
at best but fragmentary in their character, they are in- 
termingled with ashes, charred pieces of wood, broken 
pottery, cracked pipes, and other relics sadly impaired 
by the action of fire. The fires kindled in solemniza- 
tion of these funeral customs were so intense as in 
some instances to crack the stone celts deposited with 
the dead. Shell ornaments entirely disappear, and the 
ordinary clay-pipes are generally broken to pieces. 

La Hontan states that the natives dwelling upon 
the banks of the Mississippi burnt their dead, " reserv- 
ing the bodies " until they had accumulated sufficiently 
to warrant the general burning, which was performed 
out of the villages and in certain places set apart for 
that purpose. Du Pratz, 1 on the contrary, asserts posi- 
tively that "none of the nations of Louisiana were 
acquainted with the custom of burning their dead." 
In the opinion of Mr. Haywood, 8 some of the Tennes- 
see mounds afford ample evidence of cremation. 

As we have already intimated, tumuli declaring un- 
mistakably the fact that the skeletons which they cover 
were burnt prior to the inhumation, are exceptional in 
their character; and, so far as our observation extends, 
are chiefly confined to the coast-region of the State. 

1 " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 213. London, 1763. 

3 " Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 138. Nashville, 1823. 



BARROW IX LOW GROUNDS OF THE RIVANNA. 193 

Why this custom should have obtained in some in- 
stances, and not in others, we are unable to explain. 

Mr. Jefferson 1 examined, with considerable care, a 
barrow on the low grounds of the Rivanna, about two 
miles above its principal fork, opposite some hills on 
which there had been an Indian town. It proved to 
be a repository of the dead, and he conjectured that it 
contained not less than a thousand skeletons. In this 
mound the bones lay in strata, separated by interven- 
ing spaces of earth, the skeletons of the different strata 
indicating the fact that they had lain for unequal pe- 
riods in the ground — those nearest the surface being 
least decayed. The first collection of bones had been 
deposited on the ground and covered with stones and 
earth. A second had been laid on this, and covered in 
like manner. Other depositions were added from time 
to time, until the tumulus was completed. 

Mounds have been opened by the writer, in various 
portions of Georgia, whose construction was compassed 
in a similar manner. Generally, however, these sepul- 
chral tumuli contain but a single stratum of bones, and 
these laid upon the surface of the earth. The skeletons 
were deposited in a horizontal position, and were often 
piled one upon the other in such numbers, that the 
layer of bones, despite the weight of the superincum- 
bent mass of earth, was sometimes a foot or more in 
thickness. In building these mounds the adjacent 
earth was used ; and it would appear from numerous 
fragments of pottery, and from large mussel and conch- 
shells intermingled with the soil constituting the tumuli, 
that the sand and clay were first scooped up by means 
of these shells, and then transported in terra-cotta ves- 
sels, many of which were broken during the operation. 

1 "Notes on Virginia," query xi. 

13 



194 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

These sherds and shells have no connection with the 
relics deposited with the dead. Mr. Haywood 1 sug- 
gests, from personal observation, that similar means 
were employed in the erection of some of the burial- 
mounds of Tennessee. Baskets made of split cane and 
rushes were, doubtless, freely engaged in the convey- 
ance of sand and other materials for the construction 
of these tumuli. 

It is unnecessary to mention the particular locations 
of tumuli of this class, because they are still to be seen 
in nearly every part of the State. In form they are 
circular or elliptical, varying in height from two to 
twenty feet, and in diameter from twenty to one hun- 
dred and fifty feet. In cultivated fields many have 
been so sadly worn away by the ploughshare and the 
action of the elements, that they are nearly level with 
the ground — fragments of bones and scattered relics 
lying exposed upon the surface. 

1 " Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," pp. 138, 139. Nashville, 
1823. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Shell-Mounds. — Tumulus on Stalling's Island. — Shell-Heaps and their Contents, — 
Rock-Piles. — Indian Affection for the Graves of their Departed. — Ancient 
Burial-Ground on the Coast.— Rock-Walls, Embankments, and Defensive En- 
closures. — Stone Mountain. — Fortified Towns of the Southern Indians. 

We turn now to the Shell-Mounds. It is not 
an exaggeration to say that some of the islands and 
localities bordering upon the salt-water are hoary 
with these tumuli. Many are burial-mounds, while 
vast numbers of them are little more than the refuse- 
piles accumulated, during the lapse of years, about the 
Indian settlements. Those of the latter sort — com- 
posed of oyster, clam, mussel, and conch shells, the 
bones of deer, raccoons, buffalo, sea-turtles, large birds, 
and fishes, intermingled with fragments of pottery 
and the debris of the encampments — remind us of 
those heaps to which the Danish archaeologists have 
given the name of kjokkenmoddings. Shell-mounds 
formed the common graves of the Indians occu- 
pying the coast. They abound upon all the sea- 
islands, and are thickly congregated upon the outer 
bluffs and along the banks of salt-water streams. 
The admixture of shells imparted a permanency to 
many small mounds which, otherwise, would long 
since have been entirely obliterated. Most of them 



196 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



contain more than one skeleton ; the bones being gen- 
erally disposed in a horizontal position. In a few in- 
stances the dead were inhumed in a sitting posture. 
Only occasionally do the human bones found in these 
tumuli indicate the action of fire. 

It is well known that the Lower Creeks subsisted, 
to a large extent, upon oysters and fishes. Bringing 
oysters, conchs and clams from their natural and ex- 
haustless beds in the adjacent creeks and marshes, they 
carried them to their villages and ate them. As a neces- 
sary consequence, there occurred a rapid accumulation 
of shells which were carelessly thrown into heaps near 
the doors of their lodges. It was just as easy to use 
these shells in erecting mounds over the dead as to 
cover the skeletons with sand. That such a disposi- 
tion was frequently made of such refuse shells admits 
of no question. When we open these mounds it is not 
an unusual occurrence to find, intermingled with the 
shells and sand overlying the skeletons, the bones of 
large fishes, deer, and other wild animals, birds and 
sometimes dogs, accompanied by broken pieces of 
pottery, arrow-heads, flint knives, stone axes, and 
charred wood. The drift-shells — collected by the 
action of the tides into ridges so common along the 
coast — were also employed in the construction of these 
tumuli. Some are composed entirely of shells. Others 
are made chiefly of sand, with a layer of shells, vary- 
ing from six inches to three feet in thickness, overly- 
ing the whole. Others, again, appear to have been 
formed by the careless admixture of shells and sand, 
just as either material at the moment chanced to be 
most convenient. Others, still, consist of alternate lay- 
ers of human bones, sand, and shells. 

A sepulchral shell-mound is rarely seen above 



SEPULCHRAL SHELL— MOUNDS. 



197 



thirteen feet in height. Most of them do not rise more 
than three or four feet above the plain. In form they 
are elliptical and circular, with base-diameters varying 
from ten to forty feet. As a rule, the human bones 
and articles deposited in them are in a better state of 
preservation than those found in the ordinary earth- 
mounds on the main. The dry sand of the coast and 
the shell-covering afforded no mean defence against the 
disintegrating influences of time and the elements. So 
numerous are they in some localities on the sea-islands, 
that they mar the fertility of the cotton-fields. Multi- 
tudes of them have been entirely levelled by continued 
ploughing, and nothing but scattered shells mark the 
spots where they formerly stood. These tumuli afford 
physical proof of the general and long-continued occu- 
pancy of the coast-region by the red-men. A delight- 
ful climate, frequent springs of fresh water, mild airs 
in winter and cool sea-breezes in summer, fish and 
game in abundance, magnificent forests, and a variety 
of indigenous fruits, rendered this portion of the State 
very attractive to these improvident nomads. Appre- 
ciating these advantages, they availed themselves of 
them, and formed settlements in this section appar- 
ently more numerous and abiding than was their cus- 
tom elsewhere. 

The existence of these shell-mounds is not ex- 
clusively confined to the coast. Take, for example, that 
remarkable tumulus located upon Stalling's Island, in 
the Savannah River, more than two hundred miles 
from its mouth. Elliptical in shape, with a diameter, 
measured in the direction of its major axis, of nearly 
three hundred feet, and a minor diameter of one hun- 
dred and twenty feet, and with an average elevation of 
more than fifteen feet, this mound has been formed, to 



19S ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

a large extent, of the mussel, clam, and snail shells of 
this fresh-water stream. The layers of these shells are 
eiodit or ten inches in thickness, with intervening; 
strata of sand. Human bones lie in strata. It is a 
huge necropolis, and contains, at a moderate calcula- 
tion, hundreds of skeletons. It could not have been 
the work of a year or of a generation. It is the ac- 
cumulation of successive and long-continued inhuma- 
tions. There is something solemnly impressive in the 
thought that by common consent this quiet, retired, 
isolated, beautiful spot should have been consecrat- 
ed exclusively to the purposes of sepulture. The 
absence of grave-mounds in its vicinity, the unusual 
dimensions of this tumulus, the numerous skeletons 
entombed within its bosom, all attest the fact that this 
mound must have been used as the general cemetery 
of the tribes once occupying the adjacent hills and 
valleys. 

Removed from the noise and confusion of the vil- 
lages, and yet so near that the bright rays of the fires 
nightly kindled upon either bank revealed the out- 
lines of this island of the dead — lying not in the path 
trod by the hunter — away from the conflicting voices 
of the council-lodge and the wild delights of the place 
of feasting and dancing, and yet just where the eye of 
affection could ever turn and rest upon its hallowed 
form, this tumulus has stood for centuries and still 
stands, a convincing proof of that respect paid to their 
dead, and of that care bestowed upon their sepulture, 
which characterized the primitive peoples of these 
Southern forests. 

Who will recall the associations which cluster 
about this silent and yet not voiceless tomb; who 
enumerate the vicissitudes which have occurred since 



MOUND ON STALLING' S ISLAND. 



199 



the first canoes, with measured dip and attendant train 
of mourners, landed here their precious burdens ? 
Whose memory will recount the names, numbers, and 
deeds of those who have been here interred — who can 
tell the day when the first sleeper was laid to rest, and 
the first shell, bright from the bosom of the Savannah, 
was placed upon the new-made grave ? 

The hand of the conqueror has been heavily laid 
upon the descendants of those who here builded this 
memorial of their sorrows. Even the remembrance of 
their former existence is fading from the recollection of 
those who have supplanted them in the dominion over 
forest, hill, and river ; and yet decay — -more kind than 
they — leaves untouched this striking monument of 
their affection for the dead. The forest-trees with 
sturdy roots encircle this mound — their overarching 
branches shielding its outlines from the annihilating 
influences of the storm. The murmuring voices of the 
stream, which so often charmed the living ear, still 
bring joy and gladness as in days of yore, and the 
song-birds still warble sweetly their morning and 
evening lays above these nameless dead. All else is 
hushed save the whispers of the wind among the for- 
est-branches, the startled note of the solitary water- 
fowl, frightened from its retreat among the reeds by 
the passing boat, and the soothing ripple of the river. 
The warrior — his stout heart turned to clay, his spear- 
heads scattered, his stone axe lying unused near his 
skeleton hand ; the chieftain — his council-fires dead, 
his heroic deeds unsung, his memory forgotten; the 
medicine-man — his healing arts entombed, his charms 
crumbled into dust, his potent herbs ungathered in 
the tangled brake; young man and maiden upon 
whose plighted troth even the cold moon beamed 



200 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 

kindly; the care-worn mother, her toilsome journey 
ended — the tender infant — all rest in one common 
grave, and here they will remain until the last trump 
shall summon both civilized and savage before the 
judgment-seat of Him who is mightier than them all. 1 
Professor Jeffries Wy.man 2 has furnished an inter- 
esting account of the fresh- watee shell-heaps on the 
St. John's River in East Florida, The distribution of 
such heaps is very general. They are found upon the 
banks of most of the fresh-water rivers of Georgia, 
The largest which the writer has examined are located 
upon the Savannah River, in Columbia County, near 
the confluence of the Great Kiokee Creek. Artificial 
in their character, they may in general terms be de- 
scribed as the debris of the long-continued encamp- 
ments of the natives upon the river-bluffs, while en- 
gaged in hunting and Ashing. They are frequently 
several hundred feet in length, and from two to five 
feet or more in height. Fresh-water mussels formed 
an important article of food w r ith the Indians, and 
were extensively gathered both for this purpose, and 
for the pearls which they contained. Their shells en- 
ter largely into the composition of these heaps. In- 
termixed with them are seen numerous fragments of 
pottery, stone axes, chisels, crushing-stones, awls, mor- 
tars, net-sinkers, arrow and spear points, flint knives, 
shell beads, soapstone ornaments, pipes, and the bones 
of deer, buffalo, alligators, turtles, raccoons, of smaller 
animals, and of birds and fishes. Many of the larger 
bones are split longitudinally, as though the Indians, 
before discarding them, had extracted the marrow. 

1 See "Monumental Remains of Georgia," by Charles C. Jones, Jr. Part 
I., p. 18, et seq. Savannah, 1861. 

2 " An Account of the Fresh-Water Shell-Heaps of the St. John's River," etc., 
reprinted from the American Naturalist. Salem, Mass., 1868. 



REFUSE-PILES. SHELL-HEAPS. 



201 



This was done by the ancient inhabitants of Southern 
France, and by other primitive peoples, who, not con- 
tent with devouring the flesh of the animals which 
they killed, split, or ponnded the bones and sucked 
out the animal juices contained in them. 1 

The size of these refuse-piles affords striking proof 
of the long-continued occupancy of these bluffs by the 
Indians, and their contents advise us both of the food 
eaten, and the articles and implements used by these 
ancient peoples. Vast quantities of net-sinkers and 
spear and arrow points were manufactured here— the 
surface of the heaps being at some points covered with 
thousands of chips and partially -formed implements. 
When we come to consider the use of nets, and the 
different modes of fishing adopted by the Southern 
Indians, we will have occasion to refer to these 
fresh-water shell-heaps. Refuse-piles of a kindred 
character have been observed all along the Atlantic 
coast from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Sable, and also 
upon the Gulf coast. Such are extant in numbers 
upon the Georgia coast, indicating the favorite local- 
ities where the Indians congregated and subsisted 
upon oysters, clams, conchs, fishes, and animals and 
birds native to the region. The particular spots occu- 
pied by individual lodges or huts are sometimes thus 
perpetuated. In such instances we find the circular, 
depressed space formerly covered by the wigwam, sur- 
rounded by a ridge or embankment of oyster-shells. 
These refuse-piles can be readily distinguished from 
the sepulchral shell-mounds. 

In order to designate the grave of a remarkable 
warrior, who had fallen in battle, and whose body 

1 Sir John Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," second edition, p. 317. Lon- 
don, 1869. 



202 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



could not at the time be "brought home by his compan- 
ions, the Cherokees and other nations inhabiting hilly 
regions were wont to cover the body of the slain with 
stones collected on the spot. Every passer-by con- 
tributed his stone to the pile, until it rose into a 
marked and permanent memorial of the dead. " In 
the woods," says Adair, 1 " we ' often see innumerable 
heaps of small stones in those places,, where, accord- 
ing to tradition, some of their distinguished people 
were either killed or buried, till the bones could be 
gathered : there they add Pelion to Ossa, still increas- 
ing each heap, as a lasting monument and honour to 
them, and an incentive to great actions." 

At a point where a decisive battle had been fought 
between the Carolinians, under General Middleton, and 
the Cherokees, in which many of the latter had been 
killed, and the survivors compelled to abandon their 
settlements in the low countries and betake themselves 
for safety to inaccessible retreats in the mountains, 
Bartram 2 observed " vast heaps of stones," indicating 
the graves of the red warriors who had perished 
during the conflict. Dr. Brick ell 3 affirms the exist- 
ence of monuments of this sort anions the Carolina 
Indians. 

In various parts of middle and Cherokee Georgia 
these stone-piles have attracted our notice. They con- 
sist simply of fragments of rock and loose bowlders col- 
lected from the beds of adjacent streams, or picked up 
on the surface of the ground, and piled one upon the 
other until the structure attained an altitude of from 
three to twelve feet. It is intimated by some of the 

1 "History of the American Indians,'' p. 184. London, 1775. 
3 " Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., p. 346. London, 
1792. 

3 " Natural History of North Carolina," p. 380. Dublin, 1737. 



MODES OF SEPULTURE. 



203 



early travellers that these tumuli were temporary in 
their nature, and were designed merely as a protection 
to the bones of the dead, until they could be collected 
and carried home for interment in the burial-grounds 
of the tribe or community of which the deceased were 
members. 

Within the historic period some of the North- 
Georgia tribes, imitating the custom of the Europeans, 
dug graves in the earth three or four feet deep, lining 
the bottom and sides with poles and bark. The corpse, 
enveloped in a blanket, was then carefully laid in this 
rude coffin, a cover of bark and poles being placed 
above, so as to protect it from contact with the restored 
earth. After the grave was filled, stones were added to 
give shape and permanency to the place of sepulture. 
The custom of depositing with the dead all articles of 
use and ornament was scrupulously observed. Various 
are the articles of European manufacture which have 
been obtained from these later graves. 

Frequently the body was hidden away in some fis- 
sure of the rocks, or in the hollow of a tree — the en- 
trance, in each instance, being securely closed. 

They often interred beneath the fioor of the cabin, 
and then burnt the hut of the deceased over his head, 
consuming such personal property as was not lodged 
in the grave, and thus obliterating all traces of the 
inhumation. 

At other times, apparently to avoid the trouble 
of sepulture, the dead bodies were thrown into some 
neighboring river. 1 

Intercourse with swindling European traders caused 
the Indians to neglect those laborious rites of sepul- 
ture which at an earlier period were religiously ob- 

1 " Memoirs of Lieutenant Timberluke,'' p. 67. London, 1765. 



204 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



served. In this respect, as in almost every other, they 
became indifferent and demoralized ; and yet np to the 
period of their removal from the State, they cherished 
an abiding attachment for the graves of their kindred 
and chiefs. The idea of abandoning them was per- 
haps the most difficult they could be induced practi- 
cally to entertain. "Why," asks the Viscount de 
Chateaubriand, 1 " are the savages of America, among 
all the nations of the earth, those who pay the greatest 
veneration for the dead 1 In national calamities the 
first thing they think of is to save the treasures of the 
tomb ; they recognize no legal property but where the 
remains of ancestors have been interred. When the 
Indians have pleaded their right of possession, they 
have always employed this argument, which, in their 
opinion, was irrefragable : ' Shall we say to the bones 
of our fathers — Rise and follow us to a strange land ? ' 
Finding that this argument was disregarded, what 
course did they pursue \ They carried along with them 
the bones which could not follow. 

u The motives of this attachment to sacred relics 
may easily be discovered. Civilized nations have monu- 
ments of literature and the arts for memorials of their 
country ; they have cities, palaces, towers, columns, 
obelisks ; they have the furrows of the plough in 
the fields cultivated by them ; their names are en- 
graven in brass and marble; their actions are re- 
corded in their chronicles. 

" The savages have none of these things ; their 
names are not inscribed on the trees of their forests ; 
their huts, built in a few hours, perish in a few mo- 
ments ; the wooden spade with which they till the 
soil has but just skimmed its surface without being 

1 Travels in America and Italy," yol. i., p. 215. London, 1828. 



BURIAL— GROUjSTD 0^ THE GEORGIA COAST. 205 



capable of turning up a furrow; their traditional 
songs are vanishing with the last memory which re- 
tains, with the last voice which repeats them. For 
the tribes of the New World there is, therefore, but a 
single monument — the grave. Take from the savages 
the bones of their fathers, and you take from them 
their history, their laws, and their very gods ; you rob 
these people in future times of the proof of their exist- 
ence, and of that of their nothingness." 

But a short time since we stood in the midst of an 
ancient and extensive Indian burial-ground on one of 
the low-lying islands which fringe the Georgia coast. 
Earth and shell mounds were thickly congregated on 
every hand. A bold spring issuing from a sandy 
bluff — adjacent salt-water streams and wide-spread 
marshes filled with oysters, crabs, and fishes, and 
neighboring forests once abounding with game — ren- 
dered this, in the olden time, a spot highly attractive 
to the red-men. The solemnity of death and of deso- 
lation — so far at least as this entombed race was con- 
cerned — rested upon every thing. Even the tradi- 
tions of the locality were forgotten, and the grand old 
live-oaks which knew these sleepers during their wak- 
ing hours whispered no legends of their customs, their 
wars, their loves, their lives, or their deaths. Their 
feeble " footprints on the sands of time ,r had been 
obliterated by the tread of a statelier civilization, and 
there were none to care for their graves. The same 
sun was sinking to his rest. The breath of the myrtle 
and the orange still perfumed the ambient air. Kin- 
dred waves washed the bermuda-covered shore and 
dashed their spray, as in former days, against the roots 
of the vine-clad cedars. Eagles of the same bold flight 
soared majestically in the tranquil heavens, and contig- 



206 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



uous -woods were vocal with the notes of "birds native 
here for centuries. The same "bine sky, the same soft 
sea-breezes, the same generons mother earth, kindred 
forests and flowers, the same loves and voices of Na- 
ture, but all else how changed ! The living Indian 
frequented no more his favorite groves. Autumnal 
leaves long ago covered the last trace of his rude hut. 
His watch-fires were dead. His council-lodge years 
ago mouldered into utter decay. His village was con- 
verted into a cotton-field, and the ploughboy tram- 
pled upon and furrowed mouncl-tombs hallowed by 
uurecorded memories of chiefs, warriors, priests, medi- 
cine-men, and the nameless dead of tribe and family. 
Never more will weeping mother with trembling hand 
fashion the funeral-vase. The sorrowing circle will 
never again assemble around the sepulchral fires, nor 
stalwart arms above the ashes of the dead heap the 
grave-mound. Beaten upon by the rains and wasted 
by the winds, there will soon be scarce a vestige of 
these tumuli. Few, if any, will gather up and deposit 
in some secure resting-place these neglected bones as 1 
they wmiten in the sun and crumble into dust amid 
the fields of the present owners of the soil. 

" Mors sola fatetur 
Quantula sint horninura corpuscu]a." 

The world, waxing old, forgets the names, palaces, 
pyramids, and sky-searching towers even of those who 
once held mighty sway over vast domains ; and, in the 
wreck of ages whole nations, living and dying without 
letters, are remedilessly engulfed in the great ocean of 
oblivion. 

As we mused amid these silent, storm-beaten 
graves, the mournful strains of the Coplas of Man- 



ROCK-WALLS, ENCLOSURES, ETC. 



207 



rique entered with, peculiar pathos into our saddened 
thoughts. 

" Our lives are rivers gliding free 
To that unfathomecl, boundless sea — 

The silent grave. 
Thither all earthly pomp and boast 
Roll, to be swallowed up and lost 

In one dark wave. 
Thither the mighty torrents stray, 
Thither the brook pursues its way, 

And tinkling rill. 
There all are equal. • Side by side, 
The poor man and the son of pride 

Lie calm and still." 

We conclude this account of the more prominent 
traces of early constructive skill "by an allusion to the 
existence of rock- walls, embankments of earth, and 
enclosures which were designed, we think, principally 
for defensive purposes. The circumvallation by means 
of which the top of " Brown's mound " was fortified 
has already been mentioned and described. 

About half-way up Stone Mountain, in De Kalb 
County, where the acclivity becomes very marked as 
one ascends the western slope, on both sides of the 
usual pathway are the remains of a rock-wall which 
was originally intended for the protection of the upper 
portion of the mountain. This wall is still in some 
places two feet high, and is composed of fragments of 
rock, all capable of manual amotion, piled one upon 
the other. At either end this wall extended to the 
precipitous sides of the mountain where — its defensive 
presence being no longer necessary — access to the sum- 
mit was either altogether denied or rendered so diffi- 
tcult and perilous as to preclude the possibility of any 
thing like a combined attack. Where the approach to 



208 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



the upper part of the mountain was most facile, and 
where, by common consent, a path or trail seems to 
have been established, an opening occurs in the wall. 
This opening or gate-way was effectually commanded by 
a ledge of rocks a little higher up the mountain and 
directly in front of the gap, constituting a formidable 
natural breastwork from which, in all security, the 
defenders could have launched their arrows and spears 
against an enemy seeking to force a passage along this, 
the most practicable route up the mountain. In anti- 
cipation of an attack, this opening could have been 
rapidly closed, and thus the entire defensive line effect- 
ually established. Below this circumvallation are 
numerous fragments of rock which, originally forming 
a part of the wall, have, in the course of time, become 
detached and entirely separated from it. 

This huge pile of granite, towering in naked grand- 
eur far above the adjacent valleys, was a favorite 
resort of the Indians during the summer months. 
In many places upon the summit of Stone Mountain 
may still be seen the indications of this former occu- 
pancy. 

Similar rock-walls exist upon Mount Yonah, and 
guard the summits of other solitary peaks within the 
confines of Georgia. From their number and location 
it would appear that these fortified mountain-tops con- 
stituted the retreats of the natives when sore pressed in 
the plains. Protracted sieges were then unknown, 
and in the nature of things impossible. Hence, pur- 
suit was speedily abandoned when the advance was 
interrupted by formidable barriers of this descrip- 
tion. 

Nor were these rock-defences confined exclusively 
to the mountains. They sometimes appear in the 



EARTH— EMBANKMENTS. EOETIFIED TOWNS. 209 

valleys, and are circular, quadrangular, or irregular iu 
shape according to the physical conformation of the 
locality for the protection of which they were erected. 

We note also embankments of earth from two to 
four feet high and from three to five feet in width, 
generally circular in form and sometimes semilunar in 
shape — in the latter case the horns extending to and 
resting upon some stream. Within such enclosures are 
embraced areas varying in size from two to twenty 
acres, and it is suggested that, in many instances, these 
parapets formed the foundations in which were securely 
embedded the lower ends of the stockades with which 
the Southern Indians were wont to fortify their prin- 
cipal towns. Less nomadic in their habits than the 
Northern and Western tribes, and bestowing no little 
attention upon the cultivation of maize, the southern 
nations rendered permanent their seats and protected 
their homes against the incursions of wandering bands 
who from time to time sought to dispossess them 
of their cleared fields, their fish-preserves, and their 
substantial granaries. 

In plate xxx. of the Brevis Narratio, 1 De Bry 
furnishes us with a spirited sketch of a walled town 
built by the Florida Indians. The following is a 
translation of the accompanying text : " The Indians 
build their towns in this wise. Having made choice 
of a spot near a running stream, they level it off as 
evenly as they can. They next draw a furrow of the 
size of the intended town, in the form of a circle, in 
which they plant large round stakes, twice the height 
of a man, and set closely together. At the place where 
the entrance is to be, the circle is somewhat drawn in 



1 Francoforti ad Moenum, anno 1591. 

14 



210 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

after the fashion of a snail-shell, making the opening 
so narrow as not to admit more than two at a time. 
The bed of the stream is also turned into this entrance. 
At the head of the entrance a small round building is 
usually erected : within the passage is placed another. 
Each of them is pierced with slits and holes for 
observation, and is handsomely finished off after the 
manner of the country. In these guard-houses are 
placed those sentinels who can scent the trails of ene- 
mies at a great distance. As soon as their sense of smell- 
ing tells them that some are near, they hasten out, 
and, having found them, raise an alarm. The inhab- 
itants, on hearing the shouting, immediately fly to 
the defense of the town, armed with bows, arrows, 
and clubs. 

" In the middle of the town stands the king's palace, 
sunk somewhat below the level of the ground, on ac- 
count of the heat of the sun. Around it are ranged 
the houses of the nobles, all slightly covered with 
palm 1 branches ; for they make use of them only during 
nine months of the year, passing, as we have said, the 
other three months in the woods. When they return, 
they take to their houses again ; unless, indeed, they 
have been burned down in the mean time by their ene- 
mies, in which case they build themselves new ones of 
similar materials. Such is the magnificence of Indian 
palaces." 

In plate xix. of the " Admiranda Narratio," we 
have a plan of the town of Pomeiooc, and are informed 
that while the villages of the Virginia Indians were 
also defended by stockades, the poles inserted in the 
ground were smaller and less strong than those used by 
the Florida tribes. Both the Gentleman of Elvas and 



1 Palmetto. 



FORTIFIED TOWNS. 



211 



Hernandez de Biedma allude to the existence of stock- 
aded forts defended by the natives. 1 

Du Pratz, 2 speaking of the Louisiana Indians, says : 
" When a nation is too weak to defend itself in the 
field, they endeavor to protect themselves by a fort. 
This fort is built circularly of two rows of large logs of 
wood, the logs of the inner row being opposite to the 
joining of the logs of the outer row. These logs are 
about fifteen feet long, five feet of which are sunk in 
the ground. The outer logs are about two feet thick, 
and the inner about half as much. At every forty 
paces along the wall a circular tower jets out ; and at 
the entrance of the fort, which is always next to the 
river, the two ends of the wall pass beyond each other 
and leave a side opening. In the middle of the fort 
stands a tree with its branches lopt off within six or 
eight inches of the trunk, and this serves for a watch 
tower. Round this tree are some huts for the protec- 
tion of the women and children from random arrows ; 
but notwithstanding all these precautions for defence, 
if the besieged are but hindered from coming out to 
water, they are soon obliged to surrender." 

The town of Mauilla, where De Soto's army en- 
countered such determined resistance and loss at the 
hands of the Alibamons, was strongly fortified by piles 
driven in the ground " with timbers athwart, rammed 
with long straw and earth between the hollow spaces," 
so that the work, in the language of Herrera, " looked 
like a wall smoothed with a trowel." At intervals of 
eighty paces were towers in which eight men could 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith. No. V. Bradford Club Series, pp. 99, 100, 248. New York, 1866. 
3 " History of Louisiana," etc., vol. ii., p. 251, etseq. London, 1763. 



212 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

fight. These were loop-holed, and the town was en- 
tered by means of two gates. 

It is probable that most of the earth-walls or 
parapets in the valleys, with traces of an exterior 
ditch and sometimes of an interior trench also, indi- 
cate simply the locations of the palisades planted for 
the protection of ancient towns. The upright position 
and defensive power of these posts, inserted in the 
ground, would have been materially strengthened by 
a bank of earth thrown up on both sides of the stock- 
ade ; and nothing; would be more natural than the 
presence of ditches or trenches, both within and with- 
out, whence material was obtained for this purpose. 
In these enclosures the position of the gate- ways is often 
quite distinct. 



CHAPTER X. 

Stone Graves in Nacoochee Valley and elsewhere. — Copper Implements and the 
Use of tliat Metal among the Southern Indians. — Cane-Matting. — Shell 
Drinking-Cups. — Shell Pins. — Age of Stone Graves. — Evidence of Commerce 
among the Aborigines. 

In the upper part of Nacoochee Valley, and near 
its western extremity, is a prominent earth-mound. 
Located not far from the Chattahoochee River, and ris- 
ing some twenty feet or more above the surface of the 
surrounding valley, it has long constituted a marked 
feature in this beautiful region. For many years 
its slopes and summit have been cultivated, and, 
within the recollection of the older inhabitants, 
this tumulus has lost much of its original dimen- 
sions. Elliptical in shape, it has a flat top, declin- 
ing somewhat toward the southwest. Measured in 
a northeasterly and southwesterly direction, at right 
angles, its base-diameters are, respectively, one hun- 
dred and ninety, and one hundred and fifty feet; 
while its apex-diameters, ascertained in the same direc- 
tions, do not fall short of ninety and sixty feet. It is 
entirely artificial, and appears to be wholly composed 
of the earth gathered from the neighborhood of its 
base. There are no terraces, the sides sloping gradu- 
ally from the summit. Tradition has preserved no 



214 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



memories of the people by whom it was erected, and 
its treasures, if any, are still concealed within its own 
bosom. 

In June, 1870, Capt. J. H. Nichols, while ploughing 
in the vicinity of this tumulus, discovered, several 
inches below the surface of the field, a number of 
large stone slabs. They were lying at a remove of 
about thirty feet from the western slope of the 
mound. At a loss to account satisfactorily for their 
presence in this locality, and his curiosity being ex- 
cited, he set about removing them. During the prog- 
ress of the investigation, he unearthed three stone 
graves, quite near each other, but not disposed in a 
uniform direction. These graves were parallelogram- 
mic in shape, being seven feet long, three feet wide, 
and a little more than two feet and a half deep. They 
were all filled with earth, and the surface of the field 
above them was somewhat elevated beyond the level 
of the surrounding valley. The sides consisted of 
rough slabs of slate, between two and three feet long, 
and about two feet wide, set up on end. The bottom 
of the central grave was paved with oval bowlders 
which had evidently been obtained from the bed of 
the Chattahoochee. But one of the three — and that 
the central grave— was covered. For the covering, 
or lid, flat slabs of stone rather more than three feet in 
length had been employed ; so that when they rested 
upon the upright sides and ends of the grave, the en- 
closure of this vault or rude sarcophagus was com- 
plete. 

In this central grave a male skeleton, measuring 
more than six feet, lay extended at full length. Each 
of the other two graves contained the bones of more 
than one skeleton lying in disorder, and carelessly 



STONE GBAVES IN NACOOCHEE VALLEY. 215 

piled in without airy regard to regularity. It was 
obvious that these bones were in a detached condition 
when they were placed in these enclosures. It seemed 
impossible from them to construct distinct and com- 
plete skeletons. When removed from the graves and 
exposed to the air, most of them crumbled. Further 
investigation will probably develop the existence of 
other stone graves of similar construction in this vi- 
cinity. 

So far as we are informed, these are the first an- 
cient stone graves which have been observed within 
the geographical limits of Georgia. We have already 
seen that shell and earth mounds abound along the 
coast. The valleys of the Savannah, the Chattahoo- 
chee, the Etowah, the Oostenaula, the Alatamaha, 
and of other rivers, are rendered remarkable by the 
presence of tumuli august in their proportions. Even 
the lonely pine-barren region is not wholly wanting 
in these proofs of the former occupancy of the red 
race. In Cherokee Georgia heaps of stones desig- 
nate the last resting-places of the Indians, while a 
cleft in the rock, a hollow tree, or a small mound 
often formed a hiding-place for the dead. In other 
portions of the State regular inhumations occurred 
with but slight external marks to commemorate the 
places of sepulture. Although it was confidently 
believed that the stone-grave makers of the Tennes- 
see and Cumberland Valleys might have crossed the 
mountains which intervened and possessed themselves 
of the pleasant valleys of Georgia, the fact that they 
had actually done so, and, in accordance with their es- 
tablished custom, deposited their dead in rude sar- 
cophagi in these localities, was never fully established 
until by the recent investigations of Capt. Nichols. 



21(1 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN'S. 

Bartrain 1 observed in the environs of Keowe, " on 
the bases of the rocky hills immediately ascending 
from the low grounds near the river bank, a great 
number of very singular antiquities, the work of the 
ancients." They were between four and five feet 
in length, two feet high, three feet wide, and con- 
structed of four flat stones — two set on edge forming 
the sides, a third closing one end, and a large flat 
stone placed horizontally on the top of these three 
completing the enclosure — the other end being left 
open. He could not determine whether they were 
ovens, sacrificial altars, or sepulchres, and all inquiries 
failed to elicit any definite information with regard to 
their uses, both from the Indians and the trader who 
accompanied him. These structures were upon the 
surface of the ground and varied in their dimensions. 

To Mr. Haywood 2 we are indebted for early no- 
tices of the existence of stone graves in Tennessee, 
at not a great remove from the boundary-line of 
Georgia. Professor Troost found them in the Cumber- 
land Valley, and described them " as rude fabrics com- 
posed of rough flat stones (mostly a kind of slaty lime- 
stone, or slaty sandstone, both abundant in our State). 
Such flat stone was laid on the ground in an excava- 
tion made for the purpose; upon it were put (edge- 
wise) two similar stones of about the same length as 
the former, and two small ones were put at both 
extremities so as to form an oblong cavity, lined with 
stones, of the size of a man ; the place for the head 
and feet had the same dimensions. When a coflin 
was to be constructed next to it, one of the side-stones 

1 "Travels," etc., p. 370. London, If 92. 

2 " Natural and Aboriginal History cf Tennessee," pp. 123, 201-207. Nash- 
ville, 1823. 



STONE GEAVES. 



217 



served for both, and consequently they lay in straight 
rows, in one layer only. I never found one above the 
other." 1 

On the banks of the Merameg, about fifteen miles 
above the confluence of that river with the Mississippi. 
Mr. Say in 1819 observed numerous stone graves. 
They did not rise above the general surface of the 
ground, but their presence was readily ascertained by 
the projecting vertical stones which enclosed them. 
The sides of the graves were neatly constructed of 
long flat stones vertically implanted and adapted to 
each other, edge to edge, so as to form continuous 
walls. Their coverings consisted of flat stones placed 
horizontally above them. These graves varied in 
length from three to six feet. They were filled with 
earth, and the bones which they contained appeared to 
have been deposited after they had been separated 
from the flesh, and from each other, in accordance with 
a custom which obtains amoiiff some Indian tribes 
even to the present day. In some of these vaults 
rude pottery was found. It had been represented 
that these graves contained the skeletons of a diminu- 
tive race of men, but a careful examination of their 
contents proved conclusively the utter falsity of the 
statement. Near the city of St. Louis more graves 
of this description were observed. Mr. Say express- 
es the oj)inion that these sepulchral chambers are 
more modern than the tumuli which abound in this 
region. 2 

In the State of Missouri, between the river Aux 
Vaix and the Saline, on the farm of a Mr. Bogy, are 

1 Transactions American Ethnological Society, vol. i., p. 359. 

2 "Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Kocky Mountains," etc., 
compiled from the Notes of Major Long, etc., vol. i., pp. 55-57. London, 1823. 



218 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

many small elevations, evidently artificial, with trees 
from fourteen to eighteen inches in diameter growing 
upon them. They contain graves, the outlines of 
which are formed of sharp stones standing on edge 
and sloping inward at the bottom. 1 

In May, 1843, Dr. A. Wislizenus visited and ex- 
amined quite a number of stone graves in the neigh- 
borhood of Prairie du Rocher, Randolph County, 
Illinois, three miles east of the Mississippi River, and 
not far from old Fort Chartres. 

His description is as follows : in general construc- 
tion they were coffin like — their side-walls, top, and 
bottom, being formed by flat limestones joined to- 
gether without cement. The size of the grave was 
adajDted to that of the person to be buried in it, vary- 
ing in length from one and a half to seven feet, in 
width from one foot to eighteen inches, and in depth 
from one foot to a foot and a half. The top layer of 
stones was seldom deeper than half a foot below the 
ground. Although located near each other, no order 
was observed in the position and direction of these 
graves. 2 

To Professor Charles Rau I am indebted for the 
following memoranda of his researches among the stone 
graves of Illinois : 

Indian cemeteries are of frequent occurrence in the 
" American Bottom," which extends along the bank of 
the Mississippi, in the State of Illinois, and is bounded 
toward the east by the picturesque " Bluffs " — an ex- 
tended range of elevations indicating the former left 
bank of the "Father of Waters." These cemeteries 
are usually found on the brow of a hill, in accordance 



1 See Bulletin American Ethnological Society, vol. i., pp. 49, 50. 
3 See Transactions St. Louis Academy of Science, vol. i., pp. 66, 67. 



STONE GRAVES IN ILLINOIS. 



219 



with the custom of the Indians to select elevated 
places for burying their dead. The graves consist of 
rough limestone slabs, loosely put together at right 
angles, so as to form a kind of stone coffin enclosing 
the corpse on all sides. The bottom, sides, and cover, 
are all formed of stone slabs. Rectangular in shape, 
these graves vary in length according to the size of the 
occupant. Their average depth is about three feet — the 
top stones being covered with earth. The side-slabs 
protruding a few inches above the ground indicate the 
single graves. These are often arranged in rows con- 
tiguous to each other, but are sometimes distributed 
without any view to regularity. You may see, for 
instance, at the same burial-place, six or seven graves 
in a row, and a few others joining them in a quite 
unsymmetrical way. No fixed rule prevailed in the 
location of these graves with reference to the cardinal 
points. Professor Rau examined a group of seven or 
eight situated on a high eminence of the Bluff, a mile 
northeast of the conical rock formation known as the 
" Sugar Loaf," near the town of Columbia, in Monroe 
County, Illinois. One of these graves was nearly 
quadrangular in shape, measuring between five and 
six feet each way. After removing the covering he 
found a skeleton in a rather decayed state, lying flat 
on the bottom stones, with the arms not extend- 
ed along the side of the body, but stretched out at 
right angles with it. Hence the unusual width of the 
grave. The skeleton was that of a medium-sized 
individual; skull not very large, and the teeth, al- 
though much worn, in excellent condition. Not only 
the grave but also the skull, and even the hollows 
of the bones were filled with earth. No trace of any 
manufacture appeared in this grave. 



220 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

In another cemetery similar to that just alluded 
to, but containing more graves, situated on the spur of 
the Bluffs, five miles south of Columbia, decayed 
human bones were seen embedded without order in 
various portions of the earth which filled one of the 
graves. Fragments of a skull were found quite dis- 
tant from each other. From the thinness of the frag- 
ments and their curvature, it was conjectured that the 
remains were those of a child perhaps ten or twelve 
years old. Nothing of artificial origin was discovered 
in this grave. Obviously it had never been disturbed, 
for the ground within the stone enclosure was very 
hard and traversed by roots as large as a man's arm. 
In this instance the bones must have been interred 
after the flesh had been removed. It is a fact well 
remembered by many persons in this neighborhood 
that the Indians who inhabited this region during the 
early part of the present century (probably Kickapoos) 
buried their dead in stone coffins. Dr. Shoemaker, 
who resided on a farm near the town of Columbia, in 
1861, showed Professor Rau, in one of his fields, the 
empty stone grave of an Indian who had been killed 
by one of his own tribe, and there interred within the 
recollection of some of the old farmers of Monroe 
County. The skeleton, which had been exhumed a 
few years previously, was in a good state of preserva- 
tion, and Dr. Shoemaker used the skull in imparting 
practical instruction to a medical student then in his 
office. 

Other small cemeteries of a like character were ob- 
served by Professor Rau in the neighborhood of " Sul- 
phur Springs," in Jefferson County, Missouri. In them 
several food-vases were found. 

By far the most extensive investigations, however, 



STONE GKAVES IN TENNESSEE. 



221 



are those recently conducted by Professor Joseph 
Jones, M. D., in the Cumber! and Valley and in various 
other localities in the State of Tennessee. 

Most of the stone graves, examined by Dr. Jones, 
were parallelogrammic in form. Some of them were 
coffin-shaped, others were square ; and, in one instance, 
in the centre of a mound, he observed a hexagonal 
stone grave, with parallelogrammic stone graves radi- 
ating on all sides from it. Some graves were only ten 
inches long, and five inches wide. These contained 
the bones of infants. The largest he saw were about 

eio-ht feet Ions' and two feet and a half wide. Inter- 
im) o" 

mediately, were graves of all sizes. Their depths va- 
ried from ten inches to a foot and a half. As a rule 
the larger graves contained but a single skeleton. In 
the square graves it was not unusual to find portions 
of more than one skeleton: for example, two skulls 
were not infrequent. The flesh had evidently been 
removed from the bones before they were placed in 
these receptacles. On more than one occasion he no- 
ticed the bones of the toe inserted in the nasal open- 
ings of the skull. The body was never enclosed in a 
sitting posture. The square graves appeared to be the 
common receptacles for the collected bones of the dead. 
In the centre of the sarcophagus the skull was often 
located, and the long bones of the skeleton were ar- 
ranged around it. In many instances no order was 
observed in the collocation of the bones. Dr. Jones 
saw acres of stone graves in several of the valleys of 
Tennessee. 

Near Brentwood, twelve miles from Nashville, he 
opened a mound which was composed entirely of stone 
graves, located one above the other, to the height of 
four tiers in the centre. Those lowest in order were 



222 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

uniformly square graves. Just above thern were long 
and square graves, while the two upper tiers consisted 
of graves between six and seven feet in length, and 
about a foot and a half wide. The top stones of the 
highest graves were so arranged as to form a continu- 
ous stony covering for the entire mound. This tumu- 
lus, which was but an aggregation of individual graves, 
was seventy-five feet in diameter, and between six and 
seven feet high. It was covered with a layer of earth, 
several inches thick. This unique mound was located 
near the centre of an enclosure, some ten acres in ex- 
tent, surrounded by an earth-wall, three feet high, at 
the date of his visit. 

The valleys of the Cumberland, the Harpeth, Duck, 
and Stone Rivers, teem with the sepulchres and monu- 
ments of the stone-grave makers. 

From these graves Dr. Jones obtained numerous 
stone and clay images, marine shells, stone imple- 
ments, arrow and spear heads, a stone sword, agricul- 
tural implements, various ornaments of stone, clay, 
and shell, pots, vases of curious devices, and copper 
crosses. This collection possesses rare value for the 
student of American archaeology. It is very rich in 
crania. 

Upon some of the bones taken from these graves 
the ravages of syphilis were unmistakable. From 
various indications which were satisfactory to his 
own mind, Dr. Jones was convinced that inhumations 
had occurred in these rude vaults since the period of 
primal contact between the Europeans and the red 
race. 

It is perhaps not unlikely that the Chaouanons con- 
structed many of these Tennessee graves, and, crossing 
the mountains which intervened, peopled Nacoochee 



STONE GEAVES. 



223 



Valley and other portions of Georgia. The Shaw- 
nees, Shawanoes, Utchees, and Sauvanogees or Savan- 
nahs, at some remote period may have acknowledged 
allegiance to this race — a people from which sprang 
some of the noblest specimens of the red-men of 
whom we have any knowledge. The Utchees claimed 
to be autochthons, and always contended that they 
were the original proprietors of the soil. It is not 
too much to expect that future investigations will 
confirm the conjecture that stone graves will be 
found in the valleys of the Chattahoochee, the Eto- 
wah, the Oostenaula, the Coosa, and perhaps the Sa- 
vannah. 

The custom of reserving the bodies until they had 
accumulated sufficiently to warrant something like a 
general inhumation, and the practice of turning over 
the corpses to certain persons, who answered in a rude 
way to the calling of undertakers, that they might 
strip the flesh from the bones and enclose the latter in 
bark coffins until the set time of burial occurred, 
obtained, as we have already intimated, among more 
than one of the North American tribes. 1 

An examination of the stone graves of Nacoochee 
Valley inclines us to the belief that to the prevalence 
of some such custom as this are the two graves in- 
debted for the remains of several dead enclosed within 
them. The lack of order in the disposition of the 
bones, and the careless commingling of various por- 
tions of several skeletons, are evident, while in the 
central grave the corpse was carefully laid at full 
length upon the stone flooring. As we proceed we 
will perceive additional reasons for conjecturing that 

1 " Travels of William Bartram," p. 514. London, 1792. "Travels of J. 
Carver," p. 402. London, 1778. 



224 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



this grave formed the receptacle of some chief or 
warrior of note. He was an old man of great stat- 
ure. The few teeth remaining in the lower jaw 
were much worn, and the alveolar processes had 
been greatly absorbed. Unfortunately, the skull was 
in such a decayed condition that it could not be 
preserved. 

It is a fact worthy of note that stone graves, not 
unlike those which we have been considering, have 
been found in England, Scotland, Germany, France, 
and in other portions of the world. They are the 
simplest forms of tombs ; and, because of their dura- 
bility and the facility with which they could be con- 
structed, very naturally commended themselves to the 
use of such as were jealous of the bones of their dead. 
In a word, they may be described as sepulchral cham- 
bers or stone chests — either rectangular or aj)proach- 
ing polygonal forms, in consequence of the rough and 
misshapen character of the materials employed — roofed 
with blocks of Nature's own hewing. 

As we have remarked, each of these graves con- 
tained human remains. In the central grave was the 
skeleton of an old man more than six feet high. This 
corpse had been carefully deposited upon the floor 
of the vault, at full length, the arms lying paralled with 
the body. In the other two graves the bones had 
been disposed without any regard to regularity. Por- 
tions of several skeletons were found in each, and it 
was evident that, they had been inhumed in utter dis- 
regard of every thing savoring of order. None of 
these graves had been disturbed previous to this ex- 
amination. Although located in a cleared field, which 
had been cultivated for a number of years, the plough- 
share had never before touched the stone covering 
which sheltered them. 




AM PHOTO LITHOGRAPHIC CO.NX'OSBOHNIS PROCESS ' 



COPPEE IMPLEMENT. CANE -MATTING. 



225 



The most remarkable object found in the central or 
chieftain grave, was a coppee implement. It lay near 
the shoulder of the skeleton, and beneath it was a piece 
of cane-matting, probably the remnant of the sheath 
or basket which enclosed it when first deposited 
in the grave of its owner. The only portion of the 
matting or basket-work in condition to be removed 
and preserved was that part which was immediately 
underneath and in contact with the implement. It 
was discolored by the oxide of copper, which exerted 
a conservative influence. This sheath or matting 1 
consisted of thin layers of split cane, about the quar- 
ter of an inch in width, interwoven at right angles 
with each other. The cane had been prepared' for 
the purpose, by being split into strips of uniform 
width. From these the softer, inner portions had 
been removed, so that only the thin, hard, outer sur- 
face remained. Those at all familiar with this reed 
will readily remember how very firm and almost 
indestructible by ordinary exposure its tough integu- 
ment is. The use of this material by the Cherokees in 
the manufacture of baskets and other articles of orna- 
ment and domestic value, was continued until a late 
period. Adair says: "They make the handsomest 
clothes-baskets I ever saw, considering their materials. 
They divide large swamp-canes into long, thin, narrow 
splinters, which they dye of several colours, and manage 
the workmanship so well, that both the inside and out- 
side are covered with a beautiful variety of pleasing 
figures." 3 Traces still exist, indicating that the strips 
of cane composing the piece of matting we are now 

1 See Fig. 1, Plate VI. 

2 " History of the American Indians," p. 424. London, 17 7.5. 

15 



226 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEBN INDIANS. 

. considering were originally dyed, some of them black, 
and others yellow. The moisture of the earth, the de- 
posit of the oxide of copper, and the gnawing tooth 
of Time have sadly interfered with the primal coloring. 
This is probably nothing more than the fragment of 
a cane-basket — then in general use among the Indians 
— which was deposited in the grave at the time of the 
inhumation. Possibly the copper axe and other arti- 
cles of the deceased were then placed in it. 

The copper implement* which is an object of un- 
usual interest, is nearly ten inches in length, two 
inches and three quarters wide at the cutting edge, 
and two inches wide at the upper or helve end. The 
cutting edge is arching, while the other end, except 
-at the corners, is square. It possesses an almost 
uniform thickness of a little less than the tenth of an 
inch, and weighs nine and three-quarter ounces avoir- 
dupois. 

An inch and a quarter from the upper end, and ex- 
tending diagonally across the implement, is a smooth, 
worn space on each side, about an inch and a quarter 
in width, showing where and how this axe was in- 
serted in its handle. We can determine the precise 
angle of inclination which the axe sustained to the han- 
dle. The abrasion caused by the handle is very dis- 
tinct. This implement is made of pure copper^ and the 
lamination is clearly discernible. That it had been 
used, is evidenced both by the abrasion caused by the 
handle, and also by the fact that the cutting edge is some- 
what split and broken — the implement being other- 
wise perfect. So thin, however, is this axe, it seems 
scarcely probable that it could have been applied to 



1 See Fig. 2, Plate VI. 



COPPEE IMPLEMENT FEOM STONE GRAVE. 227 

any general practical uses. The material of which it 
is made being pure, native copper, if subjected to 
violent contact with any hard substance, would ne- 
cessarily bend and prove comparatively valueless. 
We think it was carried as a badge of distinction 
and treasured as a valuable ornament or possession, 
and not employed as a weapon of war or used for 
incisive purposes. Manufactured of native copper, 
it was beaten into its present form without the in- 
tervention of heat. In its construction the workman 
regarded his material as a sort of malleable stone, 
dealing with it as such, and not as a metal capable, 
under the influences of heat, of being readily hammered 
into the desired shape. The surface of this axe is con- 
siderably oxidated, except where it was surrounded by 
the handle, which would indicate not only that it was 
attached to the handle at the time of its inhumation, 
but also that the handle must have consisted of some 
hard substance, which lasted for a long period subse- 
quent to the inhumation and thus protected the in- 
serted portion of the implement from those influences 
which operated to oxidate the exposed surface. The 
handle had worn that portion of the axe which it en- 
closed quite smooth ; and this fact, while evincing no 
inconsiderable use, tended to render such part least 
liable to decomposition or oxidation. No trace of the 
handle remained in the grave. Clavigero says the 
Mexicans had copper axes, with which they cut trees, 
and that they were inserted in an eye of the handle. 
In a similar way was this axe attached ; lashings of 
deer-sinews, bark, or buck-skin being used to keep it 
securely fastened. 1 



1 See " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 198, Fig. 83. 



228 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

It will be remarked that the peculiar features of 
this Nacoochee axe are its length, it unusual thinness, 
and the existence of a clearly-defined space on each 
side, showing not only that it was inserted in the eye 
or split of a handle, but also the precise point and 
angle at which it was so enclosed and held in position. 
Compared with the Chillicothe axe, 1 the Long-Island 
axe, and others which might be mentioned, it will 
readily be perceived how materially the present axe 
differs from them all both in shape and weight. So 
far as our knowledge extends, this specimen is unique 
in more than one particular. 2 

Copper implements are rarely found in Georgia. 
The present is the finest specimen, which, after no 
mean search, has rewarded our investigations. Native 
copper exists in portions of Cherokee Georgia, Tennes- 
see, North Carolina, and Alabama, but it is generally 
found in combination with sulphur, and not in a mal- 
leable form. We are not aware of any locality, among 
those enumerated, whence the Indians could have 
secured that metal in either quantity or purity suffi- 
cient to have enabled them to have manufactured this 
implement. 

If we may credit the accounts of the early voyagers 
and adventurers, the tribes of this region, at the times 
when the Europeans first visited them, were possessed 
of but little copper. 

Sir Walter Raleigh's companions observed copper 
ornaments in the hands of some of the Indians of the 
coast. Of the many mounds, however, which the 
writer has carefully opened and examined along the 

1 Transactions American Ethnological Society, vol. ii., p. 1*74. 

2 Similar implements are said to have been taken from a grave-mound in Missis- 
sippi, but they have not passed under the writer's observation. 



USE OF COPPEE BY THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 229 

coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, not 
one contained a single copper implement or ornament 
of native manufacture. 

In the narrative of the first attempt of the French, 
under Captain John Kibault, in 1562, to colonize the 
newly-discovered country of Florida, mention is made 
of the fact that the natives spoke of mines of cop- 
per in the mountains of Appalatcy. 1 It has never, 
we believe, "been satisfactorily ascertained whether 
this reference was to particles of gold or copper ; and 
the stream of gold 2 said to be issuing from the foot 
of the mountains had in all likelihood no surer phys- 
ical existence than the fountain of perpetual youth, 
conjectured, longed for, eagerly sought, but undiscov- 
ered amid the everglades of the "Land of Flow- 
ers." The Fidalgo of Elvas alludes to the circumstance 
that the Indians informed the Governor De Soto of 
the existence, at Chisca, of a found ery of gold and cop- 
per, but makes specific mention of no copper imple- 
ments in the possession of the natives, except some 
chopping-knives at Cutifachiqui, which were thought 
to have a mixture of gold in them. 8 

Cabega de Vaca says : " Among the articles that 
were given to us, Andres Dorantes received a bell of 
copper, thick and large, figured with a face, which 
they (the Indians) had shown, greatly prizing it. 
They told him that they had gotten it from others, 
their neighbors ; and we asking them whence they had 
obtained it, they said that it had been brought from 
the direction of the north, where there was much cop- 
per, and that it was highly esteemed. We concluded 

1 French's " Historical Collections, Louisiana and Florida," p. 170. New series. 
* Ibid., p. 288. New series. 

3 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando De Soto," etc., translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith. New York, 1866. 



230 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

that wliencesoever it came, there was a foundry and 
that work was done in hollow form." 

At a subsequent period, upon showing this bell 
to other Indians, their response was, "in the place 
whence that had come there were many plates of the 
same material, and that it was a thing they greatly 
esteemed." 1 

But one other allusion is made to copper, in this 
narrative, and it is this ; when in the prairie country 
of Texas, Cabeca de Vaca saw a copper article, which 
had been fashioned by the natives in the form of a 
" hawk-bill." 

In the Portuguese narrative the Indians are said to 
have obtained pearls from the beds of the interior riv- 
ers, which they pierced with heated copper spindles 
and strung around their necks, arms, and ankles. 

At each of the three gates of the Temple of Talo- 
meco, three miles distant from the town of Cutifachi- 
qui, were stationed gigantic wooden statues, variously 
armed with clubs, maces, canoe-paddles, copper hatch- 
ets, drawn bows, and long pikes. These implements 
were ornamented with rings of pearls and bands of 
copper. 3 

On the bank of the Mississippi River, Hennepin 
was courteously received by an Indian chief, clothed 
in a " kind of white gown," which women had spun 
of the bark of trees. Before him two male attend- 
ants carried a " thin plate of copper as shining as 
gold." 8 

Hariot, Captain John Smith, and others, allude 

1 " Narrative of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 92. Washington, 1851. 

a Garcilasso de la Vega, pp. 274, 282. 

3 Hennepin's " New Discovery," etc., p. 156. London, 1698. 



COPPEE EEGAEDED AS A MALLEABLE STONE. 231 

to the presence of " diuerse small plates of copper," in 
the possession of the Virginia Indians ; and De Bry 
has figured ornaments of the same metal worn by the 
natives of Florida. 

"Without multiplying these references, it may, we 
think, be confidently asserted that while the early 
writers note the presence of copper implements and 
ornaments amon^ the Indians of this region, their nar- 
ratives prove that such were comparatively rare and 
highly prized by the natives. It is not shown that 
they were manufactured here, and we very much 
doubt whether there was in the Southern States (or 
within the geographical limits at present embraced by 
them) a natural vein or deposit of copper, accessible 
to the Indians, of sufficient size and purity to have 
afforded them the material necessary for the fashion- 
ing of such an implement as that now before us. Our 
impression is, that the metal of which the Nacoochee 
axe is formed was obtained from the shores of Lake 
Superior, and that probably the implement itself was 
there made. 

The art of melting copper was neither understood 
nor practised by the natives. Of the method of work- 
ing it while in a heated state, the primitive artist ap- 
peared to be entirely ignorant. Eegarding this metal 
simply as a sort of malleable stone, he contented him- 
self with obtaining pieces of suitable size from the 
ground or from natural blocks or veins, and hammer- 
ing them into the desired shapes. 

The Lake-Superior region furnished the Indians 
with most if not all the copper they used. The in- 
teresting researches of Mr. Whittlesey 1 and others 
have shown how extensive were those ancient mining 

1 "Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior."— Smithsonian Contribu- 
tions to Knowledge. April, 1S63. 



232 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

operations along the sliores of that lake. The meth- 
ods and implements employed for detaching pieces of 
this metal from their natural masses, and hammering 
them into various shapes, have also been carefully 
noted and described. Messrs. Squier and Davis, 1 Pro- 
fessor Wilson, 2 and others, concur in the opinion that 
the copper used by the Indians in the preparation of 
these cold-wrought implements and ornaments was 
obtained chiefly, if not entirely, from the ancient mines 
of Lake Superior. 

This copper axe from the shores of Lake Superior 
in the stone grave of an Indian in the beautiful valley 
of Nacoochee is surely an interesting proof of the com- 
merce which existed among the tribes of North Amer- 
ica. In this connection we would refer to another 
ornamental copper axe and to some copper rods or 
spindles found in an ancient grave in the Etowah Val- 
ley. It will be remarked how closely this implement 
(Plate VI., Fig. 3) resembles the Oxaca axe figured by 
Du Paix. Like the thin axe from the stone grave in 
Nacoochee Valley it is of native copper, laminated in 
its structure, and was hammered into its present shape 
without the intervention of fire. This axe, also, is 
thin, and could not well have been used for incisive 
purposes. 

The design of the small copper rods, of which Fig- 
ures 4, 5, 6, and 7, Plate VI., are illustrations, it is dif- 
ficult to conjecture. It has occurred to us that they 
may be the spindles alluded to by the historians of 
De Soto's expedition, with which, when heated, the 
natives were wont to perforate pearls so that they 
could be strung and worn as beads. 

1 " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 203. 

2 " Prehistoric Man," p. 174. 



COPPER ORNAMENTS. — CASSIS FLAMMEA. 



233 



Copper pendants for the ear have been found in 
several of the valleys of Upper Georgia. They were 
small, thin, pear-shaped ornaments, perforated in the 
upper end to facilitate the suspension. The surfaces 
of these pendants were frequently ornamented with in- 
cised lines, apparently traced with a flint flake. 

Two fine specimens of the Cassis flammea were 
taken from these graves — one of them from the central 
sarcophagus. They were nearly ten inches in length 
and about seven inches in diameter. From them, both 
the interior whorls and columellas had been removed, 
so that they answered the purpose of drinking-cups or 
receptacles of some sort. Dr. Troost saw in Tennes- 
see one of these shells with an idol inside of it — an 
opening having been made for its reception. This im- 
age was in a kneeling posture, with its hands clasped 
in front. 1 Dr Drake found in some ancient tumuli 
near Cincinnati, large marine shells of the sort we 
are now considering. They had been cut longitudi- 
nally so as to form very convenient drinking-cups. 2 
Professor Jones informs me that conch s of this de- 
scription were seen by him not infrequently in the 
stone graves of the Cumberland Valley. The pres- 
ence of marine shells in graves of a similar character, 
in other localities, has been noted by more than one 
observer. These conchs were brought from the South- 
ern Atlantic coast, or from the shores of the Gulf of 
Mexico. Here we have another illustration of the 
commerce which must have obtained among the tribes 
of this country. 

A soapstone ornament and several shell pins were 
obtained from the central grave. Of the shell pins or 

1 Transactions American Ethnological Society, vol. i., p. 361. 
3 Long's " Expedition to the Rocky Mountains," etc., vol. i., pp. 57, 58. Lon- 
don, 1823. 



234 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



ornaments there are two varieties, both of which are 
correctly represented in the accompanying plate. The 
first (Fig. 8, Plate VI.) is like a large-headed wrought- 
nail. The other (Fig. 9, Plate VI.) is pointed at both 
ends. The surface of each is much decomposed, color, 
dead white, and the feel, limy. The third relic (Fig. 
10, Plate VI.) is made of soapstone, and has received 
as careful a polish as that material will permit. 

The precise uses to which these implements or 
ornaments may have been put can only be conjectured. 
That the form is not accidental is established by the 
coinciding shape of the soapstone specimen, and by 
the fact that several specimens of both varieties of the 
shell pins were found in the central grave. Similar rel- 
ics have recently been taken from Brake-bill mound 
in Tennessee, and from a mound on the Chattahoochee 
River below Columbus. We will allude ag;ain to 
these articles in our chapter upon shell ornaments. 

The soapstone ornament is a little less than two 
inches long. Its head is rather more than half an 
inch in diameter. 

The shell pins with heads are, on an average, 
about an inch and three-quarters in length. The 
mean diameter of their heads is three-quarters of an 
inch. They all terminate in a sharp point. Those 
without heads are fully two inches in length, swell- 
ing in the centre to three-tenths of an inch in di- 
ameter, and tapering to a point at either end. These 
shell ornaments were manufactured probably from 
the thicker portions and columns of sea-conchs or 
marine shells. 

Cabega de Vaca declares that the thicker portions 
of large marine shells, and of sea-conchs, were carried 
by the natives who occupied the coast-regions of the 



4 



AETICLES FOUNT* IN'STOXE GKAVES. 



235 



Gulf of Mexico, into the interior, and were there ex- 
changed for skins and other articles. In some such 
way, in all likelihood, was the material obtained from 
which these shell pins were fashioned. 

The perforated stone 1 in its shape and size is not 
unlike the spindle- whorls found at Meilen and else- 
where in Europe. 2 Whether it was indeed used for a 
similar purpose, or merely worn as an ornament, or 
with what specific intent fashioned, we cannot state 
with certainty. We incline to the belief that it was 
probably suspended as an ornament. 

An imperforate discoidal stone, a grooved axe, 
badly worn, a beautifully-polished wedge-shaped axe 
or stone celt, a chisel of greenstone, a fragment of 
a soapstone pipe, and a large stone bead (Fig. 12, 
Plate VI.) complete the catalogue of relics taken from 
these graves. 

In the ^ucinity were ploughed up Venetian beads, 
fifty -five in number, varying in shape and color, some 
of them being red, others blue, others white (of which 
variety some have a blue wreath, inlaid, encircling 
them), others green, with crimson and yellow hori- 
zontal stripes upon them, and others black. The ma- 
terial of which they are all made is either glass or por- 
celain. 

In the ancient town of Cutifachiqui, De Soto 3 
found a dirk and beads which belonged to Euro- 
peans who, the Indians said, had many years before 
sailed into the port distant two days' journey from 
this point. 

Biedma 4 narrates that De Soto, while at this In- 

1 Fig. 11, Plate VI. 

3 £ee Keller's "Lake Dwellings of Switzerland," Plate III., Fig. 13. 

3 "Relation of the Knight of Elvas," p. 64 (Buckingham Smith's translation)- 

4 " Relation," etc., p. 240 (Buckingham Smith's translation). 



236 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

clian village, caused a mosque to "be opened in which 
were interred the chief personages of the country. In 
it were found pearls, two wooden axes of Castilian 
make, a rosary of jet beads, and some false pearls, such 
as were brought from Spain for the purpose of traffic 
with the natives. It was conjectured that these Euro- 
pean articles had been obtained by the Indians from 
the followers of the Licentiate Ayllon. 

Rosaries 1 of glass beads, with, crosses and hatchets 
of Vizcayan make, were discovered in unrolling the 
bodies of some dead Indians entombed (if we correctly 
interpret the geography of the expedition) od the 
bank of the Savannah River. This occurred in 1540, 
while the army of De Soto was enjoying the hospitali- 
ties of the queen who ruled over the tribes of this 
region. 

When speaking of the beads manufactured by the 
natives, the early historians enumerate such as were 
made of pearls, shells, sea-snails, stone, clay, and 
bone. From Indian mounds on the Georgia coast the 
writer has taken glass and porcelain beads, which 
proves that the custom of mound-building, or at least 
of interring the dead in mounds already constructed, 
existed at a period subsequent to the early intercourse 
between the Indians and the Europeans. In an oval 
mound about six miles, by water, above Lake Monroe, 
in Florida, Dr. Brinton saw numerous small blue and 
large white glass beads, which he regarded as inhumed 
at the time of the formation of the tumulus. 2 

"We know that the Spaniards brought quantities of 
European beads with them, with which to conciliate 
the natives, and that the missionaries who accompanied 



1 Fontaneda, p. 45 (Buckingham Smith's translation). 

2 " Notes on the Floridian Peninsula," p. 170. 



BEADS OF EUROPEAN MANUFACTURE. 



237 



their expeditions were not wanting in an abundant 
supply of rosaries. Nothing was more common, or, 
according to the report of the times, more conducive 
to the spread of Christianity in these benighted wilds, 
than the general dissemination of rosaries and wooden 
crosses. The acceptance at the hands of the priests, 
by the Indian, of such a gift, was too often chronicled 
as an instance of conversion. 

Beads were also distributed by the early navigators 
at various points along the coast. The discoverers of 
the Mississi]3pi dispersed them freely among the tribes 
then peopling the banks of the " Father of Waters," 
and the wanderings of the pioneers of the west are 
still verified by the presence of these coarse orna- 
ments. After having grossly violated the hospitali- 
ties of the Queen of the Savannah, De Soto moved 
with his command along the line of the Savannah 
River to its head- waters. Thence turning to the south- 
west, before reaching the confluence of the Etowah and 
the Oostenaula Rivers, in his journeyings through 
Cherokee Georgia, it is probable that he passed either 
directly through or very near Nacoochee Valley, 1 

Certain it is that, during the sixteenth century, 
ample opportunity would have been afforded to a 
prominent chief of this valley to have possessed him- 
self of such beads as those which we are now ex- 
amining. 

No trace of iron, bronze, or steel, existed in these 
graves. The presence of the copper axe and stone im- 
plements furnishes good ground for believing that 
their owner had enjoyed no opportunity for exchang- 

1 Map compiled by J. C. Brevoort, in Buckingham Smith's translation of the 
" Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto." No. 5, Bradford Club Series, 
New York, 1866. 



238 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

ing his rude weapons and ornaments for the more ser- 
viceable tools which, at an early period, were freely of- 
fered by the colonists. This fact, and the total absence 
of the old Venetian beads found in the neighborhood, 
and undoubtedly once the property of the Indians, 
enable us, with considerable confidence, to assign to 
these graves an antiquity of not less than three hun- 
dred and thirty years. Probably they are much older. 
This peculiar mode of sepulture, we have already s.een, 
was adopted by the Indians, in some instances, within 
historic times. 

The existence of extensive trade relations among 
the aborigines is beautifully verified by the contents 
of these graves. Here, concentrated in the ownership 
of a single individual, we see a basket or mat made of 
a reed not native to the valley — stone implements, la- 
boriously manufactured of materials brought from a 
distance — a cassis and shell ornaments from the Atlan- 
tic Ocean, or the Gulf of Mexico, and a copper axe 
from the shores of Lake Superior. 

Upon the rock- walls which fence in this beautiful 
valley, are engraven no memories of the tribes who in 
the olden time committed to the protection of these 
rude sepulchres the bodies of their dead. 

A people without letters, they have passed away, 
leaving not even an inscription upon their tombs. 

Nevertheless, from out the void of forgotten centu- 
ries,- from the womb of these nameless sarcophagi, 
come these implements and ornaments to tell us at 
least somewhat of the manners and customs of those 
who are gone — to remind us of the careful considera- 
tion they bestowed upon the last resting-places of their 
departed — of their belief in a future state — of the prog- 
ress they had made in the rudiments of art — of the 



COMMEECE AMONG THE ABOEIGINES. 239 

position they occupied in the scale of semi-civilization 
— and to assure us that among the red nomads of these 
primitive wilds the advantages of an interchange of 
values with distant nations were neither wholly un- 
known nor entirely neglected. 

Thus these relics become in very deed the 

" Registers, the chronicles of the age 
They were made in, and, speak the truth of history 
Better than a hundred of your printed 
Communications." 1 



1 Shakerly's " Marmyon's Antiquary." 



• 

CHAPTER XI. 



Arrow and Spear Heads. — Use of the Bow. — Skill in Archery. — Manufacture and 
General Distribution of Arrow and Spear Points. — Various Forms of these Im- 
plements.— Stone Dagger, — Flint Sword. 

Of all the various stone implements evidencing the 
handiwork of primitive man, by far the most numerous, 
and perhaps not the least interesting, are the arrow and 
spear heads. So general is the distribution of these in- 
struments of war and of venery, not only throughout 
the length and breadth of vast continents, but also in 
the habitable islands of the ocean, it would really ap- 
pear as though in every quarter of the globe, at some 
time or other, man existed in such a state of rude de- 
velopment that his principal hope of food and defence 
resided in the constant use of these rough weapons. 
So closely do these implements resemble each other, 
both in material and form of construction, whether 
found in Danish shell-mouncls or British barrows, ex- 
humed from the peat-bogs of Ireland, or wrested from 
the diluvial matrix of France, brought to light from 
out the darkness of long-forgotten caves, or fished up 
from the pile-dwellings of Robenhausen, gathered amid 
the forests of Africa, or upon the steppes of Asia, res- 
cued from the debris of a New-Zealand encampment, 
or delivered from the womb of an American tumulus, 



DISTRIBUTION OF ARROW AND SPEAR HEADS. 241 



that even the practised eye is often at a loss to dis? 
cover physical peculiarities which can sufficiently dis- 
tinguish them the one from the other. Chronologically 
considered, the stone periods which they represent may 
be separated by hundreds and perhaps thousands of 
years. Nearly synonymous as these relics appear, it 
by no means follows that they are necessarily synchro- 
nous. The tendency of present investigations is to 
the conclusion that in America the stone age reached 
its richest and fullest development, and that the arrow- 
makers of the Western Hemisphere were surpassed by 
none in the selection of their materials and in the skill 
displayed in fashioning them into forms of use and 
symmetry. 

Within the geographical limits of Georgia spear 
and arrow points of unusual beauty and excellence are 
found in sepulchral tumuli, in shell-heaps, in relic-beds, 
and in greater or fewer numbers upon the surface of 
the ground. New specimens are, each year, unearthed 
by the ploughshare and washed from their hiding- 
places by the summer showers. Most frequently are 
they seen in the rich valleys, along the banks of rivers, 
and upon the islands and headlands of the coast. Their 
presence in quantities indicates the chosen seats of the 
aborigines. Even in pine-barren regions, where the soil 
is poor, vegetation thin, and streams and swamps are 
infrequent — localities at best but sparsely populated 
by the Indians — we are assured of the fact that over 
these uninviting districts the natives wandered in pur- 
suit of game, and here and there lost an arrow-point car- 
ried away by a wounded animal or bird, broken from its 
shaft by contact with some tree, or accidentally dropped 
from the hunter's quiver. Occasional specimens are 
turned up in ditching the rice-fields, showing that even 



a 

242 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

amid the deep, dank recesses of the primeval cypress- 
forests the Indians pursued the deer, the bear, the wild- 
turkey and other game. It is in the rich valleys of 
Middle and Upper Georgia, and along the coast, that 
these relics occur most frequently. Ready supply of 
oysters, clams, fresh-water mussels, fish, and game, 
mainly determined the natives in the selection of their 
permanent habitations. Add to this the presence of a 
good natural spring, and you will readily find abun- 
dant proof of former occupancy by the red race. There 
can be no doubt but that the manufacture of these flint 
implements was carried on at various points on the 
headlands and islands of the coast. In the refuse- 
piles, numerous spear and arrow points may be gath- 
ered, some corajxLetely and others only partially formed. 
Chips, flakes, and ceres mark the spots where the 
primitive arrow-maker plied his trade, and this at a 
considerable remove from localities whence the mate- 
rials for the construction of these implements could 
have been obtained. 

The writer has observed upon the margin of more 
than one swamp in Southern Georgia the clearly-de- 
fined traces of open-air workshops for the manufacture 
of flint implements. Let one instance suffice : On 
Arcadia plantation, in Liberty County, near the edge of 
Midway swamp, is a little knoll whose top is littered 
with flakes, chips, .and arrow and spear points in vari- 
ous stages of completion. Some had evidently been 
discarded during the process of manufacture, upon the 
discovery of an unexpected defect in the material ; 
while others, failing to yield the desired fracture, had 
been thrown aside as involving too great an expendi- 
ture of labor. Fine nuclei of flint and quartz lay 
half embedded in the soil. These had been brought 



MANUFACTURERS OF ARROW AND SPEAR HEADS. 243 

from a distance. They could not Lave been obtained 
within a hundred miles of this locality, and, in all 
likelihood were procured at a remove much greater 
than that which we have named. The spear and ar- 
row heads of the coast are remarkable for the beauty 
of the material from which they were made, and for 
the skill displayed in their construction. 

Particular attention was paid to the selection of 
the more attractive and bright-colored varieties of 
flint, jasper, and quartz. Many of these arrow and 
spear heads are beautiful, and may be justly regard- 
ed as marvels of skill in flint-chipping. Some are 
serrated, and almost every known form finds here 
its type. We have seen that at least some of these 
implements were here manufactured from nuclei, 
brought from a distance. It is probable, however, that 
most of them were obtained in a manufactured state 
from other localities. It is said that, among the In- 
dians of Cherokee Georgia, in ancient times, were men 
who devoted their attention to the manufacture of 
spear and arrow heads, and other stone implements. 
As from time to time they accumulated a supply, they 
would leave their mountain-homes and visit the sea- 
board and intermediate regions for the purpose of ex- 
changing these implements for shells and various 
articles not readily obtainable in the localities where 
they resided. These were usually old men, or persons 
who mingled not in the excitements of war and the 
chase. To them, while engaged in these commercial 
pursuits, free passage was at all times granted. Their 
avocation was deemed honorable, and they themselves 
were welcomed wherever they appeared. If such was 
the case, we have here an interesting proof both of 
the trade relations existing among the aboriginal tribes 



244 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

and of the marked recognition, by an uncivilized race, 
of the claims of the manufacturer. 1 In the symmetry 
and beauty of these coast implements, we perceive the 
good sense and precaution exhibited by the primitive 
merchantman in selecting such arrow and spear points 
as would most surely commend themselves to the taste 
of his customers, and secure for him the most liberal 
returns of the articles highly esteemed among his own 
people. 

In the relic-beds and shell-heaps along the banks 
of fresh-water streams — marking the localities where 
the Indians resorted for fishing — many rudely formed 
slate and gray wacke arrow and spear points are found. 
There, the material being abundant and easily worked, 
no special care seems to have been bestowed upon the 
manufacture of these implements. Jasper and milky 
quartz were also freely used. From some of these 
relic-beds thousands of these arrow and spear heads 
have been obtained, and in every stage of develop- 
ment, from the rough stone just beginning to be 
worked, to the finished implement. In the valleys of 
Upper Georgia our search has been rewarded by ex- 
quisite specimens made of pellucid crystals, violet and 
smoky quartz, chalcedony, jasper, and flint. Party-col- 
ored materials were evidently held in special esteem, 
and so neatly are many of them chipped that the 
skilled lapidary of the present day might find his 
powers taxed to rival the workmanship here dis- 
played. 

Absolutely dependent as the Indians were upon 
the use of the bow and arrow and the spear for sub- 
sistence and protection, nomadic in their habits, and 



1 " Indian Remains in Southern Georgia," by Charles C. Jones, Jr., p. 19. 
Savannah, 1859. 



SKILL IX AECHERY. 



245 



constantly engaged in hunting or intertribal conten- 
tions, 1 we are not surprised at the general distribution, 
all over the face of the country, of these their simplest 
and most common implements. Their bows — long 
since unstrung — have crumbled into dust. Arrow- 
shaft and spear-handle are seen no more, but these nu- 
clei, flint-chips, and skilfully-formed stone points — 
indestructible by time — fortunately still remain for 
our study and information. 

According to the relation of Cabeca de Vaca, the 
Indians were all archers, being admirable in their pro- 
portions, spare, and of great activity and strength. 
Their bows were as thick as a man's arm, eleven or 
twelve palms in length, and capable of projecting 
arrows for a distance of two hundred paces, with such 
precision as to miss nothing. Detailing a skirmish 
which occurred between the Spaniards and the natives, 
he says the latter fought from behind trees, covering 
themselves so that the Christians could not . get sight 
of them. He affirms that thev " drove their arrows 
with such effect that they wounded many men and 
horses." Even the " good armor " of the Spaniards did 
not avail for their protection against these missiles. 
Some of the soldiers swore " that they had seen two red- 
oaks, each the thickness of the lower part of the leg, 
pierced through from side to side by arrows. . . . This," 
continues the historian, " is not so much to be won- 
dered at, considering the power and skill with which the 
Indians are able to project them. I myself saw an 

9 

1 Wilson, writing in 1682, asserts that the Carolina tribes were so constantly 
engaged in wars " one town or village against another," that the Indian popula- 
tion suffered " no increase of People " — several nations having been " in a manner 
quite extirpated by Wars amongst themselves since the English settled at Ashly 
River." " Account of the Province of Carolina," p. 15. London, 1682. 



246 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

arrow that Lad entered the butt of an elm to the depth 
of a span." 

On another occasion the same author states that 
upon an examination of the corpses of the Spaniards 
who had fallen in battle, their bodies were found 
to have been traversed from side to side by arrows ; 
and although some of the dead soldiers were clad in 
good armor, it did not afford adequate protection or 
security against the nice and powerful archery of the 
Indians. An instance is given where an arrow, shot 
by an Indian, pierced through the saddle and housings 
and penetrated one-third of its length into the body of 
of a Spaniard's horse. The bows were made of wood 
and remained unbent until needed for battle or the 
chase. The strings were formed of deer-sinews, strips 
of deer-skins, or the twisted gut of animals. Hard 
canes and wood were used for arrows. 1 

The Fidalgo of Elvas describes the Indians as be- 
ing exceedingly ready with their weapons, and "so 
warlike and nimble that they have no fear of foot- 
soldiers ; for if these charge them they flee, and when 
they turn their backs they are presently upon them. 
They avoid nothing more easily than the flight of an 
arrow. They never remain quiet, but are continually 
running, traversing from place to place, so that neither 
cross-bow nor arquebuse can be aimed at them. Be- 
fore a Christian can make a single shot with either, an 
Indian will discharge three or four arrows : and he sel- 
dom misses of his object. When the arrow meets 
with no armor, it pierces as deeply as the shaft from a 
cross-bow. Their bows are very perfect; the arrows 
are made of certain canes, like reeds, very heavy and 

1 See " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated from the Span- 
ish by Buckingham Smith, pp. 39, 40, 48, et seq. New York, 1871. 



USE OF AEEOWS. 



247 



so stiff that one of them, when sharpened, will pass 
through a target. Some are pointed with the bone of 
a fish, sharp, and like a chisel, others with some stone 
like a point of diamond ; of such the greater number, 
when they strike upon armor, break at the place the 
parts are put together; those of cane split and will 
enter a shirt of mail, doing more injury than when 
armed (i. e., with chips of hard stone). 1 

" The Indians," continues the same narrator, " never 
lack meat. With arrows they get abundance of deer, 
turkeys, conies, and other wild animals, being very 
skillful in killing game." 

While the army of De Soto was quartered in the 
province of Cofachiqui, Anasco was dispatched by the 
governor to secure the attendance of the mother of the 
princess of this country, who was represented to be 
in the possession of a large quantity of most valuable 
pearls. As a guide he took with him a youthful war- 
rior, brave and handsome, and a near relative of the 
princess. Having proceeded nearly three leagues, 
Anasco and his comrades halted for their mid-day 
meal. While they were reposing beneath the shade 
of some wide-spreading trees, the Indian guide, who 
had become very moody and thoughtful, quietly took 
off his quiver, and, placing it before him, drew out the 
arrows slowly, one by one. They were admirable for 
the skill and elegance with which they were formed. 
Their shafts were reeds. Some were tipped, with 
bucks' -horns, wrought with four corners, like a dia- 
mond; some were pointed with the bones of fishes, 
curiously fashioned; others with barbs of the palm 

1 "True Relation, etc., etc., given by a Fidalgo of Elvas," translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith, pp. 26, 27. New York, 1866. Compare " Letter of Hernando de 
Soto," etc., etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 56. Washington, 1854. 



248 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

and other hard woods ; and some were three-pronged. 
They were feathered in a triangular manner to render 
their flight of greater accuracy. The Spaniards could 
not sufficiently admire their beauty ; they took them 
up, and passed them from hand to hand, examining 
and praising their workmanship and extolling the 
skill of their owner. The youthful Indian continued 
thoughtfully emptying his quiver until, almost at the 
last, he drew forth an arrow with a point of flint, long 
and sharp and shaped like a dagger; then, casting 
around a glance, and seeing the Spaniards engaged in 
admiring his darts, he suddenly plunged the weapon 
in his throat and fell dead on the spot. 

Unwilling to betray the place of concealment of his 
mother, and fearing to incur the displeasure of his 
queen by disobedience of her mandate, he gave him- 
self willingly to death. 1 

The Chevalier Tonti, 2 alluding to the force with 
which their arrows were projected by the natives, 
says : " That which is wonderful in this, is the havock 
which the Shot sent by the Savages makes ; for, besides 
the exactness and swiftness of the Stroke, the force of 
it is very surprizing, and so much the rather, because 
it is nothing else but a Stone, or a Bone, or sometimes 
a piece of very hard Wood pointed and fastned to the 
end of an Arrow with some Fishes-glue, that causes this 
terrible effect. When the Savages go to War, they 
poison the Point or extremity of their Dart so that if 
that remains in the Body Death follows of necessity ; 
the only Kemedy in this case is to draw out the Arrow 
through the other side of the Wound, if it goes quite 

1 Irviog's " Conquest of Florida," chapter xlvii., pp. 225, 226. New York, 
1851. 

2 " An Account of Monsieur de La Salle's Last Expedition and Discoveries in 
North America," p. 11. London, 1698. 



ARROWS AND ARROW— POINTS. 



249 



through ; or, if not, to make an aperture on the other 
side, and so to draw it through ; after which they know 
by instinct certain Herbs the application of which both 
draws out the Venom and Cures them." 

In Laudonniere's introduction to his history of 
Jean Bibault's first voyage to Florida, 1 we are told 
that the Indians had no weapons other than bows and 
arrows. The bow-string was made " of the gut of the 
stag, or of a stag's skin which they know how to dress 
as well as any man in France, and with as different 
sorts of colors. They head their arrows with the 
teeth of fishes, and stone which they work very finely 
and handsomely." 

The following interesting account is taken from the 
" History of the Bucaniers of America : " 2 " On the 
ninth day after our arrival, our women slaves being 
busied in ordinary employments of washing of dishes, 
sewing, drawing water out of wells which we had made 
on the shore, and the like, one of them who had seen a 
troop of Indians towards the woods, cried out Indians, 
Indians ! We ran presently to our arms and their re- 
lief, but coming to the wood we found no person there, 
but two of our women slaves killed upon the place with 
arrows : in their bodies we saw so many arrows stick- 
ing, as if they had been fixed there with particular care, 
for otherwise we know that one of them was sufficient 
to kill any man. These arrows were all of a rare 
shape, being eight feet long, and as thick as a man's 
thumb ; at one end was a hook of wood, tied to the 
body of the arrow with a string, at the other end 
was a case or box like the case of a pair of tweezers, in 

1 " Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida," by B. F. French. New 
Series, pp. 170, 171. New York, 1869. 

2 Vol. i., pp. 212, 213, fifth edition. London, 1771. 



250 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

which we found little pebbles or stones ; the color was 
very red, very shining, as if they had been locked up, 
all which we believed were the arms of their leaders. 
These arrows were all made without instruments of 
iron ; for whatever the Indians make, they harden first 
artificially with fire, and then polish them with flints." 
To Thomas Ash we are indebted for the following de- 
scription of the Carolina Indians, as he saw them in 
1682 : 1 "The natives of the country are from time im- 
memorial ah Origine Indians, of a deep Chestnut colour, 
their Hair black and streight, tied various ways, some- 
times oyPd and painted, stuck through with Feathers 
for Ornament or Gallantry ; their Eyes black and spar- 
kling, little or no Hair on their Chins, well limb'd and 
featured, painting their Faces with different Figures of a 
red or sanguine Colour, whether for Beauty or to ren- 
der themselves formidable to their Enemies, I could not 
learn. They are excellent Hunters ; their Weapons, the 
Bow and Arrow, made of a Read, pointed with sharp 
Stones or Fish-Bones ; their Cloathing, Skins of the Bear 
and Deer, the Skin drest after their Country Fashion." 

Discussing the " handicrafts " of the Virginia In- 
dians, Beverly writes : " Before I finish my account of 
the Indians it will not be amiss to inform you that 
when the English went first among them, they had no 
sort of Iron or Steel Instruments ; but their Knives 
were either Sharpen'd Heeds or Shells, and their Axes 
sharp Stones bound to the end of a Stick and glued in 
with Turpentine. By the help of these they made 
their Bows of the Locust Tree, an excessive hard Wood 
when it is dry, but much more easily cut when it is 
green, of which they always took the advantage. They 

1 " Carolina ; or a Description of the Present State of that Country," etc., pub- 
lished by T. A., Gent., pp. 34, 35. London, 1682. 



AEEOWS, HOW MADE AND ARMED. 



251 



made their Arrows of Reeds or small Wands, which 
needed no other cutting but in the length, being other- 
wise ready for Notching, Feathering, and. Heading. 
They fledged their Arrows with Turkey Feathers, which 
they fastned with Glue made of the Velvet Horns of 
a Deer, but it has not that quality it's said to have, of 
holding against all Weathers; they arm'd the Heads 
with a white transparent Stone, like that of Mexico men- 
tion' d by Peter Martyr, of which they have many Rocks ; 
they also headed them with the Spurs of the Wild 
Turkey Cock." 1 

Adair testifies to the accuracy with which the 
Cherokee Indians, in his day, used their bows and ar- 
rows and threw their feathered darts. Speaking of 
these peoples, he declares : " They make perhaps the 
finest bows and the smoothest barbed arrows of all 
mankind. On the point of them is fixed either a 
scooped point of buck-horn, or turkey-cock spurs, pieces 
of brass, or flint stone. The latter sort our forefathers 
used, which our witty grandmothers call elf-stones, and 
now rub the cows with, that are so unlucky as to be 
shot by night fairies. One of those flint arrow-points 
is reckoned a very extraordinary blessing in a whole 
neighborhood of old women, both for the former cure, 
as well as a preservative against every kind of bewitch- 
ing charm." 2 

As early as 1761 the Cherokees seem to have aban- 
doned the use of stone arrow-heads, and in their stead 
to have substituted points of metal. Lieutenant Henry 
Timberlake, from his personal observations, furnishes 
us with their method, then in vogue, of pointing arrows : 
" Cutting a bit of thin brass, copper, bone, or scales of 

1 " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., p. 60. London, l^OS, 

2 "History of the American Indians," p. 425, London, 1775, 



252 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

a particular fish, into a point with two beards, or some 
into an acute triangle, they split a little of their arrow, 
which is generally of reecls ; into this they put the 
point, winding some deer's sinew round the arrow, 
and through a little hole they make in the head ; then 
they moisten the sinew with their spittle, which, when 
dry, remains fast glewed, nor ever untwists. Their 
bows are of several sorts of wood, dipped in bear's oil, 
and seasoned before the fire, and a twisted bear's gut 
for the string." 1 

Spear-heads were fastened to wooden handles, eight 
or ten feet in length, and were hurled as javelins. At 
close quarters they were employed to ward off blows, 
and to deliver thrusts, without quitting the hand. 
Among the Carolina Indians Lawson observed in 
1701 long arrows headed with pieces of glass, which 
they had broken from bottles. " They had shajDed 
them neatly, like the head of a dart, but which way 
they did it I cant tell." 2 It is not improbable that 
this historian mistook the material of which these 
arrow-points were made. The resemblance between 
some varieties of quartz, or obsidian and glass, is so 
close, than an error may thus have occurred in the ob- 
servation. We know that the Indians of California 
sometimes make arrow-heads from old glass bottles, 
and Captain Cook states that the New-Zealanders 
found means to drill a hole, with jasper, through a 
piece of glass which he had given them, so that it might 
be suspended as an ornament from the neck. It may 
be, therefore, that the remark of Mr. Lawson is entirely 
correct. 

Without multiplying these historical references, it 



1 "Memoirs of Lieutenant Henry Timberlake," pp. 61, 62. Londou, 1765. 
3 Lawson's "History of Carolina." Reprint, p. 99. Raleigh, 1860. 



LAEGE SPEAE— HEAD. 



253 



is evident that, at the period of our earliest acquaint- 
ance with the Southern Indians, the bow and arrow 
were in general use, constituting, in the hands of the 
natives, an indispensable, effective, and deadly weapon. 
Appreciating the vast numbers of arrow and spear 
heads which, during the lapse of many centuries, must 
have been manufactured and expended by these peo- 
ples in hunting, fishing, in their games and in frequent 
wars, we are prepared fully to understand why these 
flint implements are found in such quantities, and why 
they should form the most common proof of the former 
occupancy of the soil by the red-men. 

The largest spear or lance head we have seen 
within the geographical limits of Georgia, was obtained 
in a grave-mound which stood upon the point of land 
formed by the confluence of the Etowah and Ooste- 
naula Rivers. It is nearly fourteen inches in length, 
and three inches and a quarter in width — weighing two 
pounds and two ounces, avoirdupois. (See Fig. 1, Plate 
VII.) It is perfect, with the exception of the point 
which was broken off at the time this implement was 
taken from the mound. No spear-head of such magni- 
tude, so far as my knowledge extends, has been found 
within the limits of the Southern States. It is made of 
flint, and the conchoidal fractures caused in removing 
the flakes are clearly defined. The tumulus from which 
this spear-head was obtained was circular in shape, 
about twelve feet high, and with a base-diameter of fifty 
feet. It contained numerous skeletons, and afforded a 
rich yield of various and interesting relics. Sharing the 
fate which has overtaken so many of these aboriginal 
monuments, but little now remains to mark the spot 
once rendered so attractive by the presence of this 
beautiful tumulus. The grand forest-trees which 



254: ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

formerly grew upon and threw their protecting shad- 
ows about it — trees which, in all likelihood, sheltered 
De Soto and his companions, as resting upon the ver- 
dant banks of the Etowah they were hospitably enter- 
tained by the Cacique of Ichiaha — have all been cut 
clown, and the earth and clay composing the mound 
carted away to assist in levelling the streets of the 
city of Rome, and aid in the construction of a landing- 
place for a ferry-boat. 

The second spear-head (Fig. 2, Plate V1L), pointed 
at both ends, and regularly chipped, was found in the 
valley of the Chattahoochee, a few miles below the 
city of Columbus. It is twelve inches and a half in 
length, two inches and four-tenths wide, and weighs 
ten and three-quarter ounces. It was probably hafted 
in a bone, horn, or wooden socket at the end of the 
shaft. The similarity between this implement and 
that figured by Messrs. Squier and Davis, on page 211, 
of the " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Val- 
ley," is remarkable. I refer to No. 3 in Fig. 99. It 
may be that this formidable implement was used as 
a dagger. 

The beautiful spear-heads represented by Nos. 1 and 
2, Plate VIII., were taken from a chieftain mound near 
Darien, in Mcintosh County. The remaining figures 
in this plate illustrate the prevailing types of these 
implements, as they are to this day found in tumuli, 
ploughed up in the fields, gathered from relic-beds, or 
picked up on the sites of ancient villages and open-air 
workshops. 

It will be perceived that among the arrow-heads 
figured in the accompanying plate, 1 are all the varieties 
enumerated by Sir W. R. Wilde, viz., the triangular y 



1 Figs. 1 to 41 inclusive, Plate IX. 




AM PHOTO LiTHOCFAPHK CO NX( OSBOfiHfS PffOC£SS } 



TYPICAL FORMS OF AEROW-POLNTS. 255 

the indented, the stemmed, with a tang or projection 
for insertion into the shaft — the barbed and the leaf- 
shaped. Nor does this catalogue embrace them all. 
The modifications of the one idea of arming the point 
of the reed or wooden arrow with a piece of chipped 
flint are numerous. From a collection of more than 
two thousand, we have selected these as presenting 
those forms in general use. The shark's tooth may have 
suggested the shape of the indented arrow-point, and 
the serration of the edges. Fossil-shark's teeth are 
found in various parts of Georgia and Carolina. Their 
existence was known to the aborigines, who some- 
times perforated and wore them as ornaments about 
their necks. The writer has taken them from the 
earth-mounds on the coast. 

Some of these arrow-points (Fig. 40, Plate IX.) 
are flat, with their edges bevelled in opposite direc- 
tions. The object of this arrangement was to cause 
the arrow, in its flight, to take a rotary motion, thereby 
increasing the violence of the wound when the barb 
had entered the flesh. The same effect was accom- 
plished by using the half twist in feathering the shaft. 
By means of such mountings the flight of the arrow 
was rendered more steady. 

The use, by the Indians, of the hard canes, so coin- 
, mon in the Southern swamps, as arrow-stems, seems to 
be substantiated by the spike-shaped flint tips of which 
No. 32, Plate IX., may be regarded as typical. These 
could readily have been inserted in the hollow of the 
reed, cut for that purpose at Lach a remove from the 
, joint nearest the butt of the arrow, that the inserted 
end of the spike, closely fitting, would rest against and 
be held in position by it. Often has the writer 
adopted this method of spiking his arrows, during his 



256 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



youthful days, and with flint tips precisely like those 
under consideration, gathered from the shell-mounds 
and picked up in the old Indian fields on the Colonel's 
Island. 

The taste displayed in the selection of choice and 
"beautiful material, and the skill exhibited in the man- 
ufacture of these spear and arrow heads are often sur- 
prising and excite our admiration. Pellucid crystals, 
smoky quartz, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper of varie- 
gated coloring, flint, and other hard stones, were 
chipped with a regularity and delicacy truly astonish- 
ing. Especially does our wonder grow when we re- 
member that these results were accomplished without 
the aid of metallic tools. Perfectly-formed arrow- 
points exist in the writer's cabinet, less than half an 
inch in length. 1 

Bossu says that, among the Chactaws, the children 
exercised themselves in shooting with a bow and arrow 
for prizes. "He that shoots best gets the prize of 
praise from an old man, who calls him an apprentice 
warrior ; thus they are formed by emulation, without 
corporal punishment ; they are very expert in shooting 
with an instrument made of reeds, about seven feet 
long, into which they put a little arrow, feathered with 
the wool of a thistle, and, in aiming at an object, they 
blow into the tube, and often hit the aim, and fre- 
quently kill little birds with it." 2 

Captain Romans, in speaking of the same Indians, 
writes : " The young savages also use a very strait cane, 

1 Lieutenant Timberlake, in his memoirs (p. 45), mentions the circumstance 
that the Cherokee children at eight and ten years of age were very expert at killing 
birds and small game, with a sarbacan or hollow cane through which they blew 
a small dart, and with such precision that they rarely missed of striking "the 
larger sort of prey " in the eye. These small arrow-points, to which allusion has 
been made, were probably chipped for children's arrows. 

2 " Travels through Louisiana," vol. i., p. 306. London, 1771. 



7>{a.te3X. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO .V Ya OSBORNES PROCESS 



BLOW-GUNS. BOWS AND ARROWS. 257 

eight or nine feet long, cleared of its inward divisions 
of the joints; in this they pnt a small arrow, whose 
one end is covered one-third of the whole length with 
cotton, or something similar to it ; this they hold near- 
est their mouth, and blow it so expertly as seldom to 
miss a mark fifteen or twenty yards off, and that so 
violently as to kill squirrels and birds therewith." 1 

Between this miniature arrow-tip and the large 
flint spear-head, measuring nearly fourteen inches, 
these implements are seen of every intermediate 
length, and of various colors — red, blue, yellow, 
white, black and brown predominating. The arrow 
and spear points of the Southern Indians, as a gen- 
eral rule, are more beautiful than those manufac- 
tured by tribes who inhabited northern latitudes. The 
abundance of birds and small game in the swamps 
and deep forests of this semi-tropical region invited the 
use of flint implements of a delicate character. 

If not inserted in the end of a hard cane, the arrow- 
point was attached to a reed or wooden shaft (a slit 
or notch having been made for its reception) by means 
of moistened threads of deer-sinews, glue, or small 
strips of buckskin. The moistened fibres of deer- 
sinews were generally used. These 'filled all inequal- 
ities, both in the stone tip and in the butt of the ar- 
row, were very tenacious, and when dry compassed the 
juncture quite securely. Hickory, locust, white-oak, 
ash and red-cedar are said to have been the favorite 
woods employed by the Indians in the manufacture 
of their bows. These they seasoned thoroughly by 
artificial heat, and frequently anointed with bear's 
grease to render them flexible and keep them from 

1 "Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc. New York, 1775. 
17 



258 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



cracking or breaking. The customary shape of the 
bow was that of a single curve, strengthened in the 
middle. Usually plain, these bows were sometimes 
ornamented, their ends terminating in tips of bone or 
stag's horn. 

De Bry 1 has favored us with several representa- 
tions of the bows, arrows, and quivers of the Florida 
Indians. 

His general description is conveyed in the follow- 
ing words strenui tamen & pugnaces, nec alia 
habent, prseter arcum & sagittas, arma. Arcus ner- 
vum ex cervino intestino aut corio adeo concinne 
parare norunt, ut Galii melius non possint, & variis 
coloribus inficiunt ; pro mucrone sagittarum sunt 
piscium dentes & lapides affabre adaptati. Adoles- 
centes cursu, sagittarum missione & pilse ludo exer- 
centur. . . . Venatione & piscatione magnopere delec- 
tantur." 2 

Of the weapons of the Virginia Indians he says : 
" Eoruin anna ad noeendum sunt duntaxat arcus ex 
corylo, & sagittse ex arundine, cleinde stipites lignei 
plani, duorum cubitorum longitudine ; " and furnishes 
us in plate iii., as well as elsewhere, with the form of 
the bow, arrow, and quiver. 3 

Reserve arrows were carried in a rude quiver, 
made of deer, fawn, or cougar skin, suspended from the 
left shoulder, and hanging just behind the right hip 
where most convenient access could be had. Often 
these arrows were not feathered, the weight of the 
stone tip being of itself sufficient to preserve regularity 

1 " Brevis Narratio," etc., plates xiii., xiv., xix., xxv., xxvii., xxxi., xxxiii., el 
seg. Francoforti ad Moenuin. Anno 1791. 

2 Idem. Secunda Pars, p. 3. 

8 " Admiranda Narratio," etc., p. 25, plates iii., xxiii., Francoforti ad Moenum. 
Anno 1590. 



FOKCE WITH WHICH AEEOWS WEEE PROJECTED, 259 



of flight. The rapidity and precision with which the 
Indians discharged their arrows, when occasion re- 
quired, are emphatically testified to by the Spaniards, 
who in those early days, because of their cruelties, 
incurred the enmity of the natives. 

In the battle of Mauilla there fell, of the armor-clad 
Christians, two hundred. Of the living, one hundred 
and fifty received seven hundred wounds from the 
Indian arrows. Here is proof most emphatic of how 
valiantly and successfully the red-men could handle 
their rude weapons, in the face of mailed warriors, in 
defence of home and country. Testimony is not want- 
ing substantiating the efficiency and force with which 
the arrow is projected by modern Indians. The history 
of the early conflicts of the colonists is filled with ex- 
amples of the deadly effects of such ancient artillery, 
and the Dakota chief Wah-na-tah is said, on one 
occasion, to have discharged his arrow with so much 
vigor that it entirely traversed the body of a female 
buffalo and killed her calf on the other side. 1 

It only remains for us to consider the method 
adopted by the natives in the manufacture of these 
flint implements. So . far as my knowledge extends, 
the use of iron was entirely unknown among the 
primitive peoples of this region. Copper implements 
there were, of limited variety, but these occur very 
rarely, and are too soft for contact with stone. We are 
consequently compelled to the belief that the Indians 
fashioned these spear and arrow heads by chipping 
them with implements of stone. It may be that the 
serrated edges, and perhaps some of the more delicate 
arrow-heads, were formed with the aid of instruments 

1 Schoolcraft's " Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge," vol. iv., pp. 95, 96. 
Philadelphia, 1860. 



260 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

of "bone, ivory, or horn, as in the case of those manu- 
factured by the western Esquimaux tribes, as described 
by Admiral SirE. Belcher. 1 This, however, is scarcely 
probable, although Captain John Smith, in his sixth 
voyage, speaking of the Virginia Indians, says : " His 
arrow-head he quickly maketh with a little bone which 
he ever weareth at his bracept, of a splint of a stone or 
glasse, in the form of a heart, and these they glew to 
the end of their arrowes. "With the sinews of deer and 
the tops of deer's horns boiled to a jelly they make 
a glue which will not dissolve in cold water." 

We are of opinion that the Southern Indians flaked 
their flint implements by percussion and not by press- 
ure. The latter method might answer with obsidian, 
but it would prove an endless and futile process if 
quartz, chert, jasper, and flint are the materials used in 
the manufacture. 

Schoolcraft thus describes the mode observed by 
North American Indians in the preparation of flint 
arrow and spear heads : " The skill displayed in this 
art, as it is exhibited by the tribes of the entire 
continent, has excited admiration. The material em- 
ployed is generally some form of horn-stone, sometimes 
passing into flint. This mineral is often called chert 
by the English mineralogists. No specimens have, 
however, been observed where the substance is gun- 
flint. The horn-stone is less hard than common quartz, 
and can readily be broken by contact with the latter. 
Experience has taught the Indian that some varieties 
of horn-stone are less easily and regularly fractured 
than others, and that the tendency to a conchoidal 
fracture is to be relied on in the softer varieties. It 

1 See Stevens' "Flint Chips," p. 80, et seq. London, 1870. Compare Evans' 
"Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain," pp. 37, 38. London, 1872. 



MANUFACTURE OF AEROW-POINTS, 261 



lias also shown Mm that the weathered or surface 
fragments are harder and less manageable than those 
quarried from the rocks or mountains. To break 
them he seats himself on the ground, and holds the 
lump on one of his thighs, interposing some hard sub- 
stance below it. When the blow is given, there is a 
sufficient yielding in the piece to be fractured, not to 
endanger its being shivered into fragments. Many 
are, however, lost. After the lump has been broken 
transversely, it requires great skill and patience to 
chip the edges. Such is the art required in this busi- 
ness, both in selecting and fracturing the stones, that 
it is found to be the employment of particular men, 
generally old men who are laid aside from hunting, to 
make arrow and spear heads." 1 

Catlin, in his "Last Rambles amongst the Indians," 
speaking of arrow-making among the Apaches, says : 
" Every tribe has its factory in which these arrow- 
heads are made, and in those only certain adepts are 
able or allowed to make them for the use of the tribe. 
Erratic bowlders of flint are collected (and sometimes 
brought an immense distance) and broken with a sort 
of sledge-hammer, made of a rounded pebble of horn- 
stone set in a twisted withe holding the stone and 
forming a handle. The flint, at the indiscriminate 
blows of the sledge, is broken into a hundred pieces, 
and such flakes selected as from the angles of their 
fracture and thickness will answer as the basis of an 
arrow-head. 

" The master- workman, seated on the ground, lays 
one of these flakes on the palm of his left hand, hold- 
ing it firmly down with two or more fingers of the 
same hand, and with his right hand, between the 

1 "Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge," vol. iii., p. 467. Philadelphia, 1860. 



262 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



tliuinb and two forefingers, places Ms chisel (or punch) 
on the point that is to be broken off; and a coopera- 
tor (a striker) sitting in front of hiin, with a mallet of 
very hard wood, strikes the chisel (or punch) on the 
upper end, flaking the flint off on the under side, be- 
low each projecting point that is struck. The flint is 
then turned and chipped in the same manner from the 
opposite side, and so turned and chipped until the re- 
quired shape and dimensions are obtained — all the 
fractures being made on the palm of the hand. 

a In selecting a flake for the arrow-head, a nice judg- 
ment must be used, or the attempt will fail ; a flake 
with two opposite parallel, or nearly parallel planes, is 
found, and of the thickness required for the centre of 
the arrow-point. The first chipping reaches near to 
the centre of these planes, but without quite breaking 
it away, and each chipping is shorter and shorter until 
the shape and the edge of the arrow-head are formed. 

" The yielding elasticity of the palm of the hand 
enables the chip to come off without breaking the body 
of the flint, which would be the case if they were 
broken on a hard substance. These people have no 
metallic instruments to work with, and the instrument 
(punch) which they use, I was told, was a piece of 
bone ; but on examining it, I found it to be a substance 
much harder, made of the tooth (incisor) of the sperm- 
whale, which cetaceans are often stranded on the coast 
of the Pacific. This punch is about six or seven inches 
in length, and one inch in diameter, with one rounded 
side, and two plane sides, therefore presenting one 
acute and two obtuse angles to suit the points to be 
broken. This operation is very curious, both the 
holder and the striker singing, and the strokes of the 
mallet given exactly in time with the music, and with 



MANUFACTURE OF ARROW-POINTS. 



2G3 



a sharp and rebounding blow, in which, the Indians tell 
us, is the great medicine (or mystery) of the operation." 1 

Commenting npon this description, Mr. Stevens 
observes : " What Catlin has said with reference to a 
rebounding blow, is perfectly true ; it is imj^ossible to 
flake flint with a dull, heavy, smashing blow ; it is the 
measured and rebounding blow — a shock rather than 
a blow — which, given with judgment, enables the mate- 
rial to take its own line of cleavage, and produces what 
is so well known as the conchoidal fracture. It is the 
presence of this conchoidal fracture, resulting from 
human skill, that distinguishes the mere splinter of 
flint from the flint-flake." 2 

Lieutenant Beckwith, in 1854, saw a Pah-Utah In- 
dian, seated on the ground, make from a fragment of 
quartz, with a piece of round bone, one end of which 
was semispherical with a small crease in it (as if worn 
by a thread) the sixteenth of an inch deep, an arrow- 
head which was very sharp and piercing, and in all 
respects similar to those in general use among the In- 
dians of that region. He says : " The skill and rapidity 
with which it was made, without a blow, but by sim- 
ply breaking the sharp edges with the creased bone, 
by the strength of his hands — for the crease merely 
served to prevent the instrument from slipping, afford- 
ing no leverage — were remarkable." 3 

In 1860, Hon. Caleb Lyon communicated to the 
American Ethnological Society an account of the 
manufacture of arrow-heads of flint, glass, obsidian, 
and other materials, by the Shasta Indians of Califor- 
nia : " The Shasta Indian seated himself on the floor, 

1 Catlin, " Last Rambles amongst the Indians," chapter v., p. 187, et seq. 
* "Flint Chips," pp. 83, 84. London, 1870. 

3 " Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad," 1854, p. 43. 



264 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

and, placing the stone anvil upon his knee, which was 
of compact talcose slate, with one blow of his agate 
chisel he separated the obsidian pebble into two parts, 
then giving another blow to the fractured side, he split 
off a slab a fourth of an inch in thickness. Holding 
the piece against the anvil with, the thumb and finger 
of his left hand, he commenced a series of continuous 
blows, every one of which chipped off fragments of the 
brittle substance. It gradually assumed the required 
shape. After finishing the base of the arrow-head (the 
whole being only little over an inch in length), he 
began striking gentler blows, every one of which I ex- 
pected would break it into pieces. Yet, such was their 
adroit application, his skill and dexterity, that in little 
over an hour he produced a perfect obsidian arrow- 
head. I then requested him to carve me one from the 
remains of a broken porter-bottle, which (after two 
failures), he succeeded in doing. He gave as a reason 
for his ill-success, he did not understand the grain of 
the glass. No sculptor ever handled a chisel with 
greater precision, or more carefully measured the weight 
and effect of every blow, than this ingenious Indian ; 
for, even among them, arrow-making is a distinct trade 
or profession, which many attempt, but in which few 
attain excellence. He understood the capacity of the 
material he wrought, and, before striking the first 
blow, by surveying the pebble, he could judge of its 
availability as well as the sculptor judges of the perfec- 
tion of a block of Parian. In a moment, all that I had 
read upon this subject, written by learned and specula- 
tive antiquarians, of the hardening of copper for the 
working of flint axes, spears, chisels, and arrow-heads, 
vanished before the simplest mechanical process. I felt 



DIFFERENT FOEMS OF ARROW-POINTS. 



265 



that the world had been better served had they driven 
the pen less and the plough more." 1 

In view of these positive observations, it is fair to 
presume that the method adopted by the modern 
Indians in the manufacture of their common flint arrow 
and spear heads was but the perpetuation of a mode 
which, existed among the red-men prior to historic 
times. It is the writer's impression that the flint 
implements found in Georgia and the Southern States 
were made by percussion — hammers of wood and stone, 
and stone chisels being used in removing the flakes. 

In conclusion, it may not be uninteresting to analyze 
for a moment the prevailing types of these arrow and 
spear points. The primary, rudimentary, or simplest 
shape is that of either an isosceles or equilateral 
triangle (Figs. 1 and 2, Plate IX.). 

How various soever the forms maybe, upon exam- 
ination they will be found to be modifications of this 
idea. Thus, if the lower corners of the triangular 
arrow-point are rounded, we have the leaf-shaped 
implement (Fig. 3, Plate IX.), 

Still preserving the triangular form, and merely 
cutting a notch on each side to facilitate its attachment 
to the shaft, we obtain the very common variety indi- 
cated in Figs. 9, 15, and 21, Plate IX. 

Hollowing out the base of the triangle gives us 
the indented or shark' s-tooth form (Figs. 10, 26, 27, and 
28, Plate IX.). 

Add the notch on each side, and we see the beauti- 
ful implement to this day manufactured by the Cali- 
fornia Indians, so skilfully, out of obsidian (Fig. 41, 
Plate IX.). 

1 " Bulletin of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i., p. 39. New York ? 
1860-'61. 



266 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



The spike-shaped arrow-point (Figs. 31, 32, Plate 
IX.), found among the refuse-piles marking the spots 
where the Southern Indians congregated for the pur- 
poses of hunting and fishing, is but another modifica- 
tion of the same triangular idea, to facilitate its inser- 
tion in the hollow of the hard cane. 

Various are the modifications of the base of the 
triangle, designed either to form a tang or projection 
for sinking into the shaft, or to facilitate its attachment 
to the arrow-stem. 

Another form not infrequent in Georgia, and quite 
common in Tennessee, in which the apex of the triangle 
and the base have both been rounded, is seen in Fig. 
20, Plate IX. 

To these may be added the arrow-point with a 
bifurcated tang (Fig. 36, Plate IX.). 

We ought to mention also the chisel-ended, the one- 
barbed or single-winged, and the repointed arrow-heads. 
We are inclined, however, to regard the numerous speci- 
mens of these sorts which have passed under our obser- 
vation (and of which we have many in our collection) 
as examples rather of misfortune than of original design. 
They may be rated as abnormal types, and reckoned 
as unwilling deviations, on the part of the manufac- 
turer, from the symmetrical forms he desired to attain. 
Accident in manufacture, and the effort to remodel the 
implement after it had been broken, gave rise to most 
of these unusual varieties. They show how carefully 
these primitive peoples economized their stone weap- 
ons, reforming them after they had been seriously im- 
paired, and using them even when they scarcely 
answered the accurate purposes for which they were 
designed. Under the general term wasters, we might 
enumerate many partially-formed, defective, and mis- 



CLASSIFICATION OF AKEOW-POINTS, ETC. 2G7 



shapen arrow and spear points with which the relic- 
becls and open-air workshops, located upon the banks 
of many Southern streams, abound. 

It is hardly proper, however, to pursue this attempt 
at classification any further. Were we to note all the 
varieties which suggest themselves, we would be led 
into a multiplicity of illustrations which would do 
little more than represent the individual skill and 
fancies of the respective workmen, the various casual- 
ties to which these implements had been subjected dur- 
ing the process of manufacture and subsequent use, 
and the modifications of form consequent thereupon. 

Fashioned all after the same general idea, there is, 
nevertheless, in the many beautiful varieties which we 
encounter, in the delicacy and regularity with which 
these flint implements have been chipped into forms 
of ornament and use, much to en^a^e our attention 
and elevate our conception of the skill of these primi- 
tive arrow-makers. 

Before dismissing the further consideration of these 
implements of war, venery, and piscary, we would refer 
to two unusual relics, one found in a grave.-mound near 
the Warrior River, in Alabama, and the other taken 
by Professor Joseph Jones from a stone grave in 
Tennessee. 

The former (Fig. 3, Plate VII.) is a flint dagger, 
well chipped, and seven inches and a half in length, 
If our information be correct, this is the first relic 
of this description which has been brought to light 
within the territorial limits once occupied by the 
Southern tribes. In regularity of outline, and ex- 
cellence of manufacture, it is not inferior to the 
Danish daggers — the handle being more completely 
formed than that of any of the three figured by Sir 



268 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



John Lubbock on page 97 of his " Pre-historic Times." 
The situs of this implement, and the age of the tumu- 
lus from which it was taken, forbid the idea that it 
could have been modelled after the fashion of a modern 
dagger. It should be referred to the invention and 
skill of the ancient peoples who erected the mound 
and filled the region with specimens of their pro- 
ficiency in flint- chipping. 

The latter (Fig. 4, Plate VII.), Professor Jones 
calls a stone sword. This interesting relic was found 
by Dr. Jones in an hexagonal stone grave, forming the 
centre of a burial-mound, located within an ancient 
earthwork enclosing thirteen tumuli on the bank of 
the Big Ilarpeth Piver, near Franklin, Tennessee. A 
little less than twenty- two inches in length, this flint 
implement is an inch and three quarters broad at its 
widest part, and is serrated on both edges. It is care- 
fully chipped on either side from the edge toward the 
central portion, where it is an inch thick. Strong and 
serviceable was this weapon. Hafted in horn or wood, 
it could have been used as a sword ; or, attached to 
the end of a shaft, it would have constituted a for- 
midable spear. In either case, if properly handled, it 
would have proved an effective and dangerous weapon. 
After all, we cannot positively affirm that this serrated 
implement was not intended to subserve the uses of 
a saw. In all likelihood, however, it was fashioned 
to answer the purposes of a lance-head, sword, or 
dagger. 

Fig. 5 of Plate VII. is a typical form of the stone 
daggers manufactured by the ancient peoples of this 
semi-tropical region. Made of flint, it closely resem- 
bles some varieties of spear-points and cutting imple- 
ments. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Grooved Ayes. — Hand and Wedge-shaped Axes or Celts. — Perforated and Orna- 
mental or Ceremonial Axes. — Chisels. — Gouges. — Scrapers. — Flint Knives. — 
Awls, or Borers. — Leaf-shaped Implements. — Srnoothing-Stones. — Drift-Im- 
plements. 

Igxoraxt of the uses of iron— that most valuable 
of all metals — the Southern Indians in their aoricultu- 
ral, mechanical, and warlike pursuits, were driven to 
great shifts to supply the deficiency. In this attempt 
stone, wood, bone, shell, and copper to a limited ex- 
tent, were employed. Implements formed of these 
materials answered in a rude way the various wants 
of these primitive peoples, the same tool being often 
applied to different uses as the necessities of the case 
and the poverty of the owner demanded. Of all the 
ancient incisive implements characteristic of the North 
American tribes, none is more marked or more gener- 
ally distributed than the stojS"e axe. With the excep- 
tion of arrow and spear points, there is, in the^yarious 
illustrations furnished by De Bry, a singular ab- 
sence of every thing like stone weapons and tools. 
War-clubs, cane knives, hoes made of fish-bones, and 
wooden paddles are distinctly portrayed, but not a 
single stone axe is figured. In plate xxvii. (convivi- 
orum apparatus) of the " Brevis Narratio," lying upon 



270 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

the ground near the large pot upon the fire, is a stout 
implement like a bill, with a handle probably two 
feet in length. Head, point, and handle are all of the 
same material, and evidently of wood. The axe fig- 
ured in the hands of a native in the act of killing 
Peter Gambie in a boat, is certainly metallic, and of 
European manufacture. 1 

If we relied upon these illustrations for informa- 
tion, they would lead us to believe that stone imple- 
ments were infrequent among the Indians of Virginia 
and Florida. Other investigations, the testimony of 
tumuli and of cultivated fields, and the contents of 
numerous relic-beds assure us, however, that such was 
not the fact. Various authorities might be cited con- 
curring in the statement that the manufacture and use 
of stone axes by the North American Indians were 
very general. From the many which suggest them- 
selves, we select the following that the historical evi- 
dence on this subject may be fairly presented : 

" Instead of Hatchets and Knives," says Father Hen- 
nepin, 2 " they (the Indians) make use of sharp Stones 
which they fasten in a cleft j}iece of Wood with Leather 
Thongs." 

By Loskiel 3 we are informed that "their hatchets 
were wedges, made of hard stones, six or eight inches 
long, sharpened at the edge, and fastened to a wooden 
handle. They were not used to fell trees, but only to 
peel them, or to kill their enemies." 

In commenting upon the " handicrafts " of the Vir- 
ginia Indians, Beverly 4 writes : 

1 " Brevis Narratio," etc., plate xlii. Francoforti ad Moenuin, De Bry. Anno 
1591. 

2 " Continuation of the New Discovery," etc., p. 103. London, 1698. 

3 "History of the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., p. 54. London, 
1794. 

4 " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., p. 60. London, 1*705. 



MANUFACTURE OF STONE AXES. 



271 



" Before I finish my account of the Indians it will 
not be amiss to inform you that when the English 
went first among them they had no sort of Iron or 
Steel Instruments ; but their Knives were either Sharp- 
ened Reeds or Shells, and their Axes sharp Stones 
bound to the end of a Stick, and glued in with Turpen- 
tine. By the help of these they made their Bows of 
the Locust Tree, an excessive hard Wood when it is 
dry, but much more easily cut when it is green, of 
which, they always took the advantage." 

To Lafitau 1 we are indebted for the following in- 
teresting account : " Stone axes have been in use in 
America from time immemorial. They are made of a 
kind of very hard and tough stone, and it requires 
much labor to make them fit for use. They are pre- 
pared by the process of grinding on a sandstone and 
finally assume, at the sacrifice of mucli time and labor? 
nearly the shape of our axes, or of a wedge for split- 
ting wood. The life of a savage is often insufficient 
for accomplishing the work, and hence such an imple- 
ment, however rude and imperfect it may be, is con- 
sidered a precious heirloom for the children. When 
the stone is finished the difficulty of providing it with 
a handle arises. They select a young tree, of which 
they make a handle, without cutting it. They split 
one end and insert the stone. The tree grows, tight- 
ens around it, and encloses it so firmly that it hardly 
can be torn out." 

This method of hafting a stone axe was also prac- 
tised by the Louisiana and Alabama Indians who, 
according to Captain Bossu, 2 chose a young tree in 

1 " Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquaius," vol. i., p. 110. Paris, 1*724 (Prof. 
Rau's translation). 

. 2 "Travels through the Part of North America formerly called Louisiana, " 
etc., vol. i., p. 223. London, 1111. 



272 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

which — having made an incision with a flint or peb- 
ble as sharp as a razor — they inserted " a stone cut in 
the form of a hatchet." As the tree grew up, it en- 
cased the stone which by that means became insepa- 
rable from it. Afterward they cut off the tree at the 
proper length, so as to have a handle to the axe of 
convenient form. The same writer intimates that 
lance-heads and darts were fastened to their shafts in 
a similar manner. Du Pratz 1 describes the axes of 
the Louisiana Indians as made of a dark-gray stone of 
fine grain. " Whether these stones," says he, " were 
naturally flat or were ground on other hard stones, 
such as the sand-stone found in Louisiana, certain it is 
they succeeded in making axes. These stone axes 
are an inch or more thick at the head, and half an 
inch in thickness for three-quarters of their length. 
The edge is bevelled (forme en biseau) but not cut- 
ting, and may be four inches wide, while the head 
is only three inches in width. This head is provided 
with a cavity — deep enough to admit a finger — in 
order to facilitate the fastening of the blade in the 
split end of the handle ; and this end is, moreover, 
firmly bound, to prevent further splitting. But there 
is another inconvenience. In using these axes it was 
not possible to cut wood, but merely to bruise it ; and 
therefore they always hacked the trees close to the 
ground in order that the fire which they kindled here 
might consume more readily the fibres of the wood 
bruised by the axe. Finally, by dint of labor and 
patience they succeeded in felling the tree. This 
labor requires much time; and formerly, therefore, 
they were much more occupied than at present, being 
now provided with axes which we trade to them." 



1 "Histoire de la Louis'ane," vo 1 . i., p. 166. Paris, 1785. 



STONE AXES OF THE CIIEEOKEES. 



273 



Writing with special reference to the Cherokee 
Indians, Adair 1 advises us that they " formerly had 
stone axes, which in form commonly resembled a smith's 
'chisel. Each weighed from one to two or three pounds 
weight. They were made of a flinty kind of stone : 
I have seen several which chanced to escape being 
buried with their owners, and were carefully preserved 
by the old people as respectable remains of antiquity. 
They twisted two or three tough hiccory slips, of about 
two feet long, round the notched head of the axe ; and 
by means of this simple and obvious invention they 
deadened' the trees by cutting through the bark, and 
burned them, when they either fell by decay or be- 
came thoroughly dry. With these trees they always 
kept up their annual holy fire ; and they reckon it un- 
lawful, and productive of many temporal evils, to ex- 
tinguish even the culinary fire with water. . . . By the 
aforesaid difficult method of deadening the trees, and 
clearing the woods, the contented natives got conven- 
ient fields in process of time." 

It may be fairly stated that greenstone or diorite 
was the favorite material used by the Southern Indians 
in the manufacture of their axes. Tough and durable 
in its character, this stone best answered the purposes 
for which implements of the sort we are now consid- 
ering were designed. Comparatively few were made 
of flint. Rarely does a chipped axe occur — by far the 
greater number being ground or rubbed into the de- 
sired shape through the tedious process of attrition 
w^ith some other stone. 

With a view to a more definite description, the 
stone axes of the Southern Indians may be classified 
thus : 

1 "History of the American Indians," etc., p. 405. London, 1775. 
18 



274 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

I. Gkooved Axes. — These are frequently met with 
in the sepulchral tumuli, upon the sites of old* villages, 
in relic-beds, and in cultivated fields. In former times 
they were in very general use. It may be remarked,' 
in passing, that this type, while not unknown, was 
certainly unusual among the ancient peoples of Europe. 
In the ninety-six plates which illustrate the " Lake 
Dwellings of Switzerland, and other parts of Europe, 
by Dr. Ferdinand Keller," 1 we seek in vain for an axe 
of this description. There is a remarkable absence of 
implements of this kind among the many and interest- 
ing relics so intelligently discussed and presented by 
Mr. Evans in his recent admirable work upon " The 
Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments 
of Great Britain." But two are figured by Mr. Nils- 
son 2 — one of diorite found in the ground, near Gad- 
darod, in the parish of Horrod, and the other of horn- 
blend, taken from a bog near Lund. He appears 
somewhat at a loss how to classify them, and inclines 
to the opinion that they were " wedges with which to 
split wood." Here, however, no doubt exists in the 
mind of the observer. The largest grooved axe found 
within the geographical limits of Georgia, which has 
passed under the personal observation of the writer, 
weighs nearly ten pounds, is ten inches and a quarter 
in length, six inches wide, and two inches and a half 
thick. The groove is an inch and a half wide, and 
nearly half an inch in depth. The elevated ridges on 
each side of the groove are three quarters of an inch 
wide. In the formation of this groove or transverse 
furrow, as well as in imparting shape to this implement, 

London, 1866. 

s "Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia," plate viii., figs. 166, 167. London, 
1868. 




AM PHOTO IITHQ(,RAPHICCO N'Y.iOSBOFISES PROCESS • 



GROOVED AXES. 



275 



a pointed flint was used to peek away the portions of 
the stone sought to be removed. Traces of this pro- 
cess are clearly perceptible, although after it was com- 
pleted the axe was polished with no little care. This 
specimen is represented by Fig. 1, Plate X., and was 
taken from a tumulus located at the confluence of the 
Etowah and the Oostenaula Rivers. 

Between this axe and the small but well-formed 
specimen represented in Fig. 2, Plate X., weighing 
only half a pound, the writer has in his collection 
more than fifty grooved axes, taken from mounds and 
relic-beds, and picked up in the fields within the pres- 
ent limits of Georgia. Although of different shapes 
and weights they belong to the same class. A few 
typical forms are represented in the accompanying 
plate. (See Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, Plate X.) 

Of axes of this description it may be affirmed that 
their weights vary from half a pound to nine pounds. 
Occasionally they will turn the scale even at seventeen 
pounds. In length they differ from three to twelve or 
fourteen inches, and in width from two and a half to 
nine inches. The average width of the groove is about 
an inch and a quarter; its depth from a quarter to 
half an inch. The presence of the transverse furrow 
indicates the manner in which these axes were hafted. 
If not inserted in the growing tree and there allowed 
to remain until the wood had closed tightly around 
the groove, a strong withe, following the groove, was 
bent around the axe, and the ends brought together 
beneath, where they were firmly lashed by means 
of deer-sinews or thongs of buckskin. In order to 
make the implement more secure in the handle, thus 
formed, it will be observed that in many instances 
the lower or inner side of the axe was carefully 



276 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOETHEKN INDIANS. 

squared or slightly hollowed out so as to permit 
the insertion of a tightening wedge. (See Figs. 4, 6, 
and 7, Plate X.) In most cases the groove is near the 
head of the axe ; occasionally, however, this tranverse 
furrow runs across the central portion, thus affording 
an opportunity for a double edge. Specimens of 
this latter variety, so far as our observation extends, 
are carelessly made, and of soft material. They could 
have been used for little else than offensive pur- 
poses. 

We have already been assured by the testimony 
of early observers that grooved axes were extensively 
engaged in deadening forest-trees, so as to clear certain 
tracts of land for cultivation. They were also em- 
ployed in removing the bark and bruising the outer 
fibres near the roots of the trees so that the fires kin- 
dled around them might the more readily eat into the 
trunks and insure their early fall. It is well known 
that the Indians of this region, in their mechanical 
oj)erations, upon every practicable occasion invoked 
the agency of fire. By its assistance the tree selected 
for the future canoe was felled, then burnt off at the 
required length, and finally shaped and hollowed out. 
In plate xii. (Linterium conficiendorum ratio) of the 
" Admiranda Earratio," 1 we have a lively representa- 
tion of the entire operation. It is more than prob- 
able that during the progress of such labors these 
implements, with suitable handles, proved very service- 
able in removing the charred surface from time to time 
so as to afford fresh fuel for the flame. 

An examination of the heads of these axes acquaints 
us with the circumstance that many of them are bruised 
and splintered, which indicates that they were used 

1 Francoforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 



GROOVED AXES. STONE ADZE. 



277 



either as clubs or as wedges for splitting wood. In 
the latter case — the edge being placed and by means 
of the handle held in position — the axe was driven 
into the wood by blows struck upon its head with a 
stone or wooden maul. 1 

These heads are sometimes rounded, again flat, and 
at other times wellnigh pointed. 

We incline to the belief that the smaller and me- 
dium-sized specimens were tomahawks or battle-axes. 
Cleverly hafted and at close quarters they would, in 
stalwart hands, constitute a formidable offensive weap- 
on, whether the blow be delivered from the edge or 
the head. 

Many of these axes are badly worn, thus showing 
the long-continued use to which they were subjected, 
and advising us of the fact that their edges were 
time and again reground or sharpened. So often 
have some of them been sharpened, that nearly the 
entire blade has been worn away. The edge was re- 
newed by rubbing it upon a whetstone. Several of 
these whetstones are in the writer's collection, deeply 
furrowed and hollowed by the sharpening of these im- 
plements. The edges of these axes were sharpened 
evenly on both sides. 2 

Near akin to the grooved axe is the stone adze, of 
which Fig. 8, Plate X., may be taken as a fair example. 
Implements of this sort are rare, and were fashioned 
in the same manner and of similar material employed 
in the manufacture of the grooved axes which we have 
been considering. The specimen before us is made of 
a tough diorite, is five inches and a quarter in length, 

1 See Nilsson's " Stone Age," third edition, p. 68. London, 1868. 

2 For forms of such axes found in other portions of the United States, see 
" Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 217. " Archaeologia Ameri- 
cana," vol. i., p. 233, et seq. 



278 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

two inches wide, and an inch and a quarter in thick- 
ness. It has been subjected to considerable use, the 
cutting edge being chipped and worn, while the lower 
portion of the flat surface retains the polish derived 
from long-continued service. 

This adze may have been hafted to a wooden han- 
dle, forming with the implement an angle more or less 
acute at the pleasure of the workman, one end being 
bent and adjusted to the flat surface opposite the 
groove, where it was retained in proper position by 
deer-skin thongs or ligaments of some sort ; or, a flexi- 
ble branchy or withe may have been wound round the 
groove and the two ends bound together so as tightly 
to embrace the blade after the fashion generally ob- 
served in mounting the ordinary grooved axe. The 
bent handle, we think, was probably adopted. 

II. Hand and Wedge-shaped Axes, oe Stone 
Celts. 1 — In the accompanying Plate XI. are figured 
six varieties of this class. As in the case of the 
grooved axes, so with those we propose now to con- 
sider, greenstone or diorite was the material usually se- 
lected for their manufacture. A few chipped flint axes 
have been found. The largest specimen represented 
weighs three pounds and a half, is ten inches and a half 
in length, and three inches and a half broad at the cut- 
ting edge. Its symmetry of proportion is admirable. 
Some of these axes are nearly cylindrical, and resem- 
ble very closely the variety called by Mr. Mlsson the 
cross-axe with edge ground on both sides. Others 
have the broad sides somewhat convex, and the nar- 
row sides flat. Some have blunt heads and are fan- 
shaped, widening very much at the cutting end. 

1 Compare Evans' "Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain," chap, 
vi, London, 18T2. 



7*lale X/. 




AM PHOTOLITHOGRAPHIC CO N Y \ OSBORNES PROCtSTj 



POLISHED STONE CELTS. 



279 



Others still, terminate in a sharp point at the upper 
end, as though the intention was with it to loosen or 
break up the material worked upon, and then, with 
the cutting end, to remove the particles and smooth 
the surface. Such a tool would have been very con- 
venient in many instances. Particularly valuable 
would it have proved for dressing the interior of a 
wooden canoe hollowed out by fire. Within the old 
oak canoe, unearthed in 1780, at St. Enoch's croft, and 
near the prow, lay a beautifully-finished stone axe 
very similar to the pointed celt we have figured in 
the accompanying plate. It was doubtless one of the 
simple implements with which this primitive Clyde 
boat had been fashioned. 1 A like tool was equally 
effective in giving shape to the cypress canoes which 
in ancient times navigated the yellow waters of the 
Savannah and the Alataniaha. These wedge-shaped 
axes or celts differ in length from three inches to a 
foot; are, at the cutting end, from two to four inches 
broad, and in weight vary from half a pound to five 
pounds and upward. The heads are rounded, square, 
flattened, or pointed. The cutting edge is square, 
rounded, or semicircular. In all cases, so far as our 
observation extends, the edge has been ground from 
both sides. Occurring frequently in many portions of 
the Southern States, it is certain that their use was 
very general among the Indians. The larger and longer 
varieties were probably managed by hand, and were 
not hafted. Those of smaller size may have been in- 
serted in wooden, bone, or horn handles, although even 
these were entirely capable of manual use . without 
such aid. The absence of a groove and the elongated 
form are the distinguishing peculiarities of this class. 

1 Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," p. 104. London, 1865. 



280 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



These implements, are much better adapted to incisive 
purposes than the grooved axes. Their edges show 
continued use, and frequent sharpening. Sometimes 
their heads afford evidence of the fact that they had 
been struck with a stone or club and thus driven after 
the fashion of a wedge ; but usually, and especially in 
the case of the longer and larger varieties, the weight of 
the implement and the strength of the arm sufficed 
for the accomplishment of the prescribed labor. All 
of them were first chipped or pecked into shape, and 
then rendered smooth by the tedious process of attri- 
tion. It is very difficult satisfactorily to discriminate 
between some varieties of these wedge-shaped axes 
and some forms of stone chisels. . So meagre was the 
supply of tools in the possession of the Indians, and 
to such various uses were the same implements often 
and necessarily applied, that it is almost impossible to 
subject them to a rigid classification. 

Professor Joseph Jones discovered in a sepulchral 
mound on the bank of the Cumberland River, opposite 
the city of Nashville, Tennessee, an axe of this class 
with a stone handle. The entire implement was cut 
out of a solid piece of greenstone (see Plate XII.). 
The handle is thirteen inches and a half in length, an 
inch and a half wide, and about an inch thick. At the 
lower end is a hole for the suspension and convenient 
transportation of the weapon when not in actual use. 
The axe is about six inches long, two inches and a 
quarter wide at the cutting edge, and an inch and a 
half broad at the other end. It is three-quarters of an 
inch thick, and in general appearance. .resembles many 
of the stone celts at one time in such common use 
among the Southern Indians. This relic possesses spe- 
cial interest and value, and may be regarded as per- 



Plate XI! '. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO HY.\ OSBOMBS PROCESS 



PERFORATED AXES. 



281 



petuating the manner in which axes of this class were 
frequently hafted for domestic and perhaps warlike 
purposes. 

An implement precisely similar in material and 
construction was taken from a grave-mound in York 

o 

District, South Carolina, about ten years ago. Eelics 
of this description are very rare, and were fashioned at 
the expense of much time and labor. Both of them 
were carefully polished in every part. We accept 
them, not only as curious mementos of a shadowy 
past, but as enduring proofs of the peculiar mode in 
which implements of this class were mounted and car- 
ried by these primitive peoples. 

It would really appear that the ancient workman, 
as though mindful of the curiosity which would exist 
in the minds of coming generations touching the cus- 
toms and manufactures of an age without letters or 
established traditions, designed by this permanent 
legacy to remove all doubt, and bequeath an imper- 
ishable token for the information of those who should 
come after. 

The thin copper axes found in Nacoochee Yalley 
and in a few other localities, are to be referred to the 
present class. They were inserted in a split handle, 
and were rather objects of distinction and ornament 
than serviceable implements. Having, however, in 
another chapter commented upon these interesting 
relics at some length, we need here do no more than 
mention their existence. 

III. Perforated Axes or Hatchets. 1 — It is a 
noteworthy circumstance that these implements were 
generally shaped prior to their perforation. It might 



1 Compare Evans' " Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain,'' chap, 
viii. London, 1872. 



2S2 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

very well be supposed that the workman, anxious to 
detect any concealed defect in the material which in 
the end might render useless his entire labor, would 
have at least blocked out his axe before he entered 
upon the tedious process of drilling ; but that he should 
not only have fully shaped, but in some instances even 
polished the weapon before he commenced drilling the 
hole for its handle, appears singular. Such, neverthe- 
less, is the fact. As we write, the physical proofs are 
before us. Of several specimens now on the desk, one 
is entirely finished and polished, but lacks the handle- 
hole. A second (Fig. 1, Plate XIII.), pecked into the 
desired shape, but not yet ground, indicates on the 
nether side the commencement of the drilling process. 
Upon a careful examination of a third, it will be per- 
ceived that the drill-hole has been completed only one- 
half the required distance. A core or nipple, nearly a 
quarter of an inch in length, appears at the bottom 
(Fig. 2, Plate XIIL), clearly showing that a hollow 
reed, aided by sharp sand and water, was the instru- 
ment by means of which the perforation was compassed. 

Many of these ornamental axes are pick-shaped and 
made of soft material, such as slate. They vary in 
length from three to seven inches. The perforations 
are made longitudinally through the centre — the points 
being rounded but not brought to a cutting edge. 
Fig. 3, Plate XIIL, may be taken as a typical repre- 
sentation. 

The blades are scarcely more than three-eighths of 
an inch in thickness ; and, in addition to the handle- 
hole, appears a lateral perforation as though for the 
suspension of the axe. The entire length is rather 
more than six inches, and the width of the blades an 
inch and a half. Axes of this shape occur frequently 



]°la.te XJ/J- 




AM PHOTO-LITHCSRAPHIC CO k Y, ( 0S80RNES PROCESS} 



PEEEOEATED AXES. 



283 



in the relic-beds along; the banks of the rivers where 
the natives congregated for fishing and hunting. Most 
of them are broken. Their edges are not sharp. Fash- 
ioned principally of a talcose slate, they were utterly 
unfit for service and must be regarded as ornamental 
or ceremonial axes. They vary in size and form, most 
of them being less than six inches in length and very 
light. 1 Steatite was also used in the manufacture of 
these relics. 1 In a grave-mound in Louisiana, three 
beautiful specimens of this variety of ornamental or 
ceremonial hatchets were found several years since. 
They were made of a ferruginous quartz. Where the 
two blades united, these implements were reenforced 
and perforated. There was also a lateral perforation in 
each blade, at the distance of about three-quarters of 
an inch from the central perforation. These relics 
were marvels of symmetry, , and polished in the high- 
est degree. Their edges indicated no wear. Evidently 
these implements, upon whose construction such great 
care and labor had been bestowed, were not intended 
for incisive purposes but were designed as ornaments 
or badges of distinction, or for ceremonial uses. 

Fig. 4, Plate XIII., closely resembles what Mr. 
Nilsson 2 would call an " Amazon, or two-ed^ed axe." 
A similarly-shaped implement is represented in the 
" Sword of Tiberius." Zenophon mentions it in his 
" Anabasis," and Horace in one of his Odes speaks of 
Amazonia seeuris* The specimen before us, made of 
a tough, close-grained diorite, beautifully polished, is 
four inches long, an inch and three-eighths in diam- 
eter where it is perforated, and an inch and three- 

1 See " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," pp. 218, 219. Wash- 
ington, lO-xo. 

3 " Stone Age," p. 11, plate viii., fig. 173. Loudon, 1868. 
3 " Carminurn," liber iv., 4. 20. 



284 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 

quarters wide at the edges. The handle-hole is four- 
tenths of an inch in diameter. This axe is stout and 
strong, but it will be observed that while the imple- 
ment itself is capable of withstanding the shock conse- 
quent upon the delivery of a substantial blow, so small 
is the joerforation that no handle, other than one of 
metal, could prove at all lasting or serviceable. We 
incline to the belief that this also was an ornamental 
or ceremonial axe — intended for display, and not for 
actual use. 

"We notice only one other variety (Fig. 5, Plate 
XIII.), made of syenite, weighing one pound eleven 
ounces, four inches and a half in length, two inches 
and three-quarters in width, and an inch and three- 
quarters thick in the middle. The edges of this stout 
weapon are slightly convex, and five-eighths of an inch 
thick, the sides of the blades gradually approaching 
each other from the middle toward the ends. The. 
perforation for the handle is an inch and a quarter in 
depth, and rather more than half an inch in diameter. 
The implement appears to be finished, although it may 
be questioned whether the maker did not intend, if 
uninterrupted in his labor, to continue his drilling 
until the axe was entirely perforated. The bottom of 
the aperture is concave, showing that a solid drill 
was used. Circular striae are observable the entire 
depth of the hole. 

After a careful examination of a large number of 
these perforated axes, we are under the impression that 
most of them were carried as matters of ceremony, 
ornament, or distinction ; and it may be that the 
American war-chief suspended from his belt one of 
these delicate implements, and regarded it with emo- 
tions near akin to those which possessed the breast of 



HATCHETS OF EUROPEAN MANUFACTURE. 



285 



the Scandinavian warrior as he cherished and displayed 
his victory -stone. 

The use of these stone axes was abandoned very 
shortly after intercourse was established betwen the 
red-men and the white traders. Even in Adair's time 
such implements were rarely to be seen, and those 
which had escaped interment with their former owners 
were carefully preserved by the old people and re- 
garded as " respectable remains of antiquity." 1 

It was the lamentation of the old chieftain at 
Mucclasse, that the white man had not sooner come 
among the children of the forest to teach them the use 
of letters, and furnish them with the iron hatchet, the 
knife, the hoe, and the gun. 

Eagerly did the Indians bargain for metallic imple- 
ments ; and the European manufacturers, pandering to 
the savage taste, fashioned the axes and hatchets in- 
tended for the American market, of those peculiar and 
often complex types with which the red-men of the 
last two centuries have been, in the popular esteem, so 
inseparably associated. "The warlike arms used by 
the Cherokees," says Lieutenant Timberlake 2 (writing 
in 1761), "are guns, bows and arrows, darts, scalping- 
knives, and tommahawkes, which are hatchets; the 
hammer-part of which being made hollow, and a small 
hole running from thence along the shank, terminated 
by a small brass-tube for the mouth, makes a compleat 
pipe. There are various ways of making these, accord- 
ing to the country or fancy of the purchaser, being all 
made by the Europeans ; some have a long spear at 
top, and some different conveniencies on each side. 
This is one of their most useful pieces of field-furniture, 

1 "History of the American Indians," p. 405. London, 1115. 
3 " Memoirs," etc., pp. 51, 52. London, 1765. 



286 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



serving all the offices of hatchet, pipe and sword; 
neither are the Indians less expert at throwing it 
than using it near, but will kill at a considerable 
distance." 

Chisels. — So uncertain is the boundary-line which 
separates the wedge-shaped axe or stone celt from the 
chisel, that we are often at a loss to determine the class 
to which certain specimens should properly be assigned. 
The truth is, remembering the poverty of their owners 
and the various expedients to which they were neces- 
sarily compelled to resort in conducting their mechanical 
operations, we cannot seriously err when we say that 
some tools were used indiscriminately as wedges, hand- 
axes, and chisels. Of the true character and design of 
some of them, however, we may speak with at least 
some degree of confidence. 

Numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate XIV., may be regard- 
ed as typical specimens of the ordinary chisels. They 
are all made of greenstone, carefully polished. Num- 
bers 2 and 4 were, in all likelihood, haffced in sockets 
of wood, stag's-horn, or bone, in like manner as those, 
of not dissimilar shape, which have been found in the 
curious and most interesting lake-dwellings of Switzer- 
land and other parts of Europe. Others wanted han- 
dles, and their heads give ample evidence of the fact 
that they were driven by means of a small wooden or 
stone maul. These implements are generally thin, 
varying in length from two and a half to eight inches, 
and in width from one to three inches. They are 
ground from both sides, to form the cutting edge. In 
various relic-beds and shell-heaps which I. have ex- 
amined (e. g., those on the banks of the Savannah 
Eiver, especially in Columbia and Kichmond Counties, 
and on the islands and headlands along the coast), I 



Plate J1S. 




CHISELS AIS'D GOUGES. 



2S7 



have found the larger bones of the deer, the bear, and 
the buffalo, fractured longitudinally and split open. 
The caves of France and Spain afford proof that the 
bones of animals were there split and crushed by the 
primitive peoples in order to extract marrow from 
them. The Laplanders, the Esquimaux, the Austra- 
lians and other savage nations have been doing the 
same thing 1 within the historic period ; and it is not 
improbable that in splitting bones for this purpose, 
these chisels were in part used by the Southern In- 
dians. Some of these implements are square, with flat 
sides ; others are cylindrical, with the sides somewhat 
convex ; others still, being quite thin, are brought to a 
cutting edge, both at the end, and for a considerable 
distance on either side. Those made of flint were first 
chipped and then ground. The greenstone specimens 
are carefully polished in every part. 

The gouge differs from the chisel in that it is 
usually larger and stronger, and by having one side of 
the lower end scooped out and the other rounded, so 
as to present a curvilinear edge. I have seen no relics 
of the Southern Indians resembling the delicate flint 
hollow chisels described by Mr. Nilsson and other 
European archaeologists. Numbers 5, 6, and 7, Plate 
XIV., represent the prevailing types. They are gen- 
erally from four to nine inches in length, and from one 
to four inches wide. The principal labor in their con- 
struction was expended upon the lower end and in 
forming a symmetrical edge. Where the implement 
was grasped with the hand or hafted, less care was be- 
stowed upon its polish. The upper end almost always 
has been splintered or broken to a greater or less 
extent by blows. Some of the smaller specimens may 



1 Sir John Lubblock, " Pre -historic Times," pp. 311, 316, 428. London, 1869. 



288 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



have "been haft eel, but the larger were evidently in- 
tended for hand-use, Some of these tools were fash- 
ioned with a protuberance or elevation on the hack — 
distant from the cutting edge about a third the length 
of the implement — by means of which a considerable 
leverage was gained by simply inserting the lower end 
in the material to be removed and then pressing down- 
ward with the upper end or handle. {See Fig. 5, 
Plate XI V.) Diorite was the chief stone from which 
these gouges were made. Comparatively few speci- 
mens occur, and they do not seem to have passed into 
very general use among the Southern tribes, or at 
least such of them as inhabited the region to which 
our attention has been chiefly directed. 

Bone-gouges are more frequently met with. They 
are made of the leg-bones of deer and buffaloes (Fig. 8, 

Plate XIV.)- 

Sceapees. — The spoon-shaped scraper of France and 
Switzerland is more pronounced in form and purpose 
than any implement of like character it has been my 
good fortune to find among the relics of the Southern 
tribes. 1 With them, however, scrapers were exten- 
sively used, but commonly in the shape of substantial 
flint flakes, struck off by a single blow, and with the 
wider end chip]3ed to a square or rounded cutting edge. 
AVe see also leaf-shaped or triangular implements, thick 
in the middle — their edges chipped until they were 
sharp — which were capable of serving the double use 
of knife and scraper. 

The Esquimaux scraper figured by Sir John Lub- 
bock, on page 93 of his " Pre-historic Times," is the 
counterpart of more than one specimen found in the 

1 Compare also the scrapers figured by Mr. Evans, in his elaborate work upon 
the "Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain,'' chapter xiii. London, 
1872. 



I 



SCEAPEES. 



28 ( J 



shell-heaps on the banks of the Savannah River. For 
the removal of hair from hides, and in sundry ways, such 
tools would have proved very serviceable to the primi- 
tive workmen. Shell scrapers were also employed. 

Sometimes when a stout arrow or spear head had 
lost its point, it was repaired and subjected to a sec- 
ondary use which entitled it to be classed among scrap- 
ers. Fig. 11, Plate XIV., is an illustration of this. At 
the point of fracture it has been nicely chipped to a 
cutting edge. In the present instance this edge is 
semicircular, but the writer has several in his collec- 
tion whose cutting edges are square. This scraper is 
an inch and a quarter wide, and was made of a beauti- 
ful variegated jasper. Professor Rau has an inipleinent 
of this sort, which shows most clearly on its edge the 
polish caused by the continued use to which it had 
been subjected. 

By far the most elaborate scraper I have seen in 
this region, is that represented by Fig. 14, Plate XIV. 
It consists of a close-grained dark diorite, and was 
taken from a burial-mound in the Etowah Valley. 
An implement precisely similar in shape, and some- 
what larger, was unearthed in the same valley, in 1870, 
near the confluence of the Etowah and Oostenaula 
Rivers. The specimen before us is five inches and a 
quarter in length, four inches and a half in width, and 
half an inch thick. 

The perforation is nearly half an inch in diameter, 
and was compassed by drilling from both sides. The 
cutting edge extends from one shoulder all the way 
round to the other. The handle is flat and its sides 
are square. At the nether portion the edge has been 
much worn by continual use. The entire implement 
is well polished. 

19 



290 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



An implement of similar shape has been represented 
and classed by Messrs. Squier and Davis among orna- 
mental axes. 1 With due deference to the opinion 
of those gentlemen, we feel constrained to differ from 
them in this suggestion. Had this been an ornamental 
axe, suspended for the purposes of display, there would 
have been no marked abrasion of the edge. As it is, 
the proofs of long-continued use are evident all along 
the lower portion of the edge and for fully two-thirds 
of the way up, on either hand, toward the shoulders. 
We incline to the belief that it was a scraper, and that 
the hole drilled through the lower part of the handle 
was intended to admit the insertion of a buckskin 
thong by means of which the implement, when grasped, 
could have been fastened around the wrist or the back 
of the hand, and thus the steady and forcible use of 
the tool greatly facilitated. Thus employed it would 
have proved of great value in dressing skins and for 
different purposes to which a large scraper could have 
been applied. Figs. 9, 10, 12, and 13, Plate XIV., 
represent other forms of scrapers manufactured by the 
primitive peoples of this region. 

Flint Knives. — Closely allied to the scraper, and 
of such construction that they might very readily have 
been used both as knives and scrapers, are numerous 
leaf-shaped implements of which Figs. 1, 3, 6, 8, and 
9, Plate XV., may be regarded as typical. These are 
thin, being chipped from the middle toward the sides 
where they are brought, all around, to a cutting edge. 
They vary in length from one to six inches, and in 
width from half an inch to three inches and a half. 
Some of them terminate in points so acute that they 
resemble piercers. 

1 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," page 218, Fig. 114, No. 6. 
Washington, 1848. 



Flrde XV. 




1, 



AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO N.YaOSBORSES PROCESS 



ELLXT KXrVES. AWLS. BOEEES. 



291 



Although the forms of flint knives in nse among 
the primitive peojues of this region are various and 
often exceedingly rude, numbers 1 to 9, Plate XV., 
may be considered the prevailing types. 1 The great 
anxiety of the Indian was to obtain a cutting edge. 
This secured, he often expended but little labor upon 
the rest of the implement. Consequently, we meet 
with many semilunar knives whose backs are thick 
and square and carelessly chipped. Such were designed 
to be held in the hand. The backs of others are thin, 
and these were probably hafted in longitudinal han- 
dles of bone or wood. Other knives are almost razor- 
shaped ; and others still — elongated in form and with 
a square cutting edge — required, for convenient use, 
that the upper end should be inserted in a handle. 
Some of the larger leaf-shaped implements are so much 
elongated that it is difficult satisfactorily to determine 
whether they were intended as spear-heads or as in- 
cisive tools. In plate xv. of the " Brevis Narratio," 
De Bry furnishes a frightful illustration of the enor- 
mities perpetrated upon the bodies of their slain ene- 
mies by the Florida Indians by means of arrows, clubs, 
and cane knives (cirundinis frag nnentis), but he no- 
where, so far as we now remember, figures a single 
flint implement which could be called a knife. 

i\WES, oe Boeees. — We are informed in the early 
Spanish narratives that the Southern Indians, with 
heated copper spindles, perforated pearls so that they 
mio-ht be strung and worn as ornaments. That this 
was not the only kind of piercing implement fashioned 
by the natives, is evidenced by the presence of flint 
awls or borers, four forms of which are here figured 



1 Compare Evans' "Ancient Stone Monuments, etc., of Great Britain,*' chap 
ter xv. London, 1872. 



292 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

(see Figs. 2,. 3, 4, and 5, Plate XVI). Number 5 may 
have answered the double purpose of awl and scraper. 1 
The point, as well as the square edge at the opposite 
end, exhibits that peculiar polish which is born only 
of prolonged use and attrition. 

Ordinary piercing implements were also formed 
from bone, and of these number 1, Plate XVI., is an 
excellent example. It is made of a deer's tibia, and is 
seven inches and a half in length. The scars left upon 
its surface by the flint implement employed in shaping 
and polishing it, are still very perceptible. Sharp- 
pointed fish-bones were also extensively used, and 
these are often found in the shell-heaps and relic-beds 
both on the coast and along the banks of fresh-water 
rivers. Flint saws are not infrequent. 

Before concluding this brief notice of the cutting 
and piercing implements of the Southern Indians, it 
is proper to notice a class of tools — similar in general 
features to the ordinary hand-axes — made sometimes 
of slate, at other times of a hornblendic stone, again 
of diorite, and rarely of flint, whose edges are blunt 
and rounded, or square. They were, to all appear- 
ances, designed as smoothing or polishing stones (see 
Figs. 6, 7,' and 8, Plate XVI.), and may have been 
used in dressing skins. Their edges are all worn 
very smooth from constant attrition. The implement 
represented in Fig. 9, Plate XVI., typifies a large 
class, examples of which abound in the relic-beds on 
the Savannah River. Their use is not well ascertained, 
but their flat surfaces are very smooth as though they 
had been constantly employed in rubbing. There are 



1 The similarity between this implement and that figured by Mr. Evans on rage 
289 of his "Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain" (London, 1872), 
is very striking. 



flate 1)7. 




AM. PHOTO -LITHOGRAPHIC CO. NY. ( OSBORNES PROCESS I 



DEIFT IMPLEMENTS. 



293 



also stout triangular-shaped flint articles, which may he 
regarded as primitive axes, as unfinished spear-heads, 
or as scrapers. This matter of classification is, to a 
considerable extent, arbitrary ; and while in most in- 
stances we have no hesitancy in determining the uses 
and characters of various relics, we not infrequently 
encounter, specimens concerning whose specific employ- 
ment and accurate archaeological arrangement any thing 
more than a suggestion ajypears unjustifiable. 

The implements we have been examining, were ob- 
tained from mounds, shell-heaps and relic-beds, gath- 
ered upon the sites of ancient villages and fishing- 
resorts, or ploughed up in cultivated fields. Before 
bringing the present chapter to a close, we desire to 
allude to some rudely-chipped, triangular-shaped imple- 
ments found in Nacoochee Valley under circumstances 
which seemingly assign to them a very remote anti- 
quity. In material, manner of construction, and in 
general appearance, so nearly do they resemble some 
of the rough, so-called flint hatchets belonging to the 
drift type, as described by M. Boucher de Perthes, 
that they might very readily be mistaken the one for 
the other. 

Through this valley flows the Chattahoochee. The 
region being auriferous, the attention of the early set- 
tlers was soon attracted to an examination of the bed 
of this stream. Particles of gold were found intei- 
mixed with the sand and pebbles which lay at the 
bottom. In order to facilitate mining operations, 
canals were cut, sometimes deflecting the current from 
its channel, and at other times branching off from the 
river so as to unearth the precious metal which had 
gravitated out of sight. These sections passed through 
the soil and the underlying drift composed of sand, 



294 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

gravel, and bowlders, and reached down to the hard 
slate-rock below. During one of these excavations, 
at a depth of some nine feet below the surface, inter- 
mingled with the gravel and bowlders of the drift and 
just above the rocky substratum upon which the de- 
posit rested, were found three flint implements, simi- 
lar in shape, one of which is here figured (Fig. 10, 
Plate XVI.). It is three inches and a quarter in length, 
and two inches and an eighth in width. It is said that 
articles of a like character have been discovered in the 
drift along the line of Duke's Creek, but they have not 
passed under the writer's observation. In this drift, 
so far as my knowledge extends, no human bones have 
as yet been found. Prominent earth-mounds, stone 
graves, and frequent relics attest the fact that this 
valley was for a long period thickly populated by the 
red race. These indications of a former occupancy are 
chiefly confined, however, to the surface, or its vicinity. 
When the white men possessed themselves of this 
beautiful region, these mounds were covered with 
trees, to all appearances as vigorous and as old as 
those which composed the adjacent forests. Indian 
inhumations outside of the tumuli are shallow. Spear 
and arrow heads, stone mortars, pipes, beads, discoidal 
stones, axes, and various relics indicating use and orna- 
ment, are confined to the mounds, graves, and the sur- 
face of the valley. Such do not obtain in the drift. 
I am not in possession of data sufficient to warrant the 
expression of an opinion touching the age of Nacoochee 
Valley as at present constituted. That it has under- 
gone no material change for centuries, is demonstrated 
by the presence of these large earth-mounds and the 
big forest-trees which grew upon them after they were 
neglected or abandoned by those who erected them. 



DKIFT IMPLEMENTS. 



295 



The Chattahoochee has been pursuing its present course 
through this charming valley for lo ! these many, many 
years, and there are no indications of any violent and 
sudden mutations which would have modified the period 
requisite for the gradual formation of the soil and sur- 
face of this valley. That the implements in question 
were brought down with and deposited in the drift 
when as yet there was little or no vegetable life in the 
valley, seems highly probable. How many centuries 
have looked down upon the gradual accumulation of the 
soil which now overlies the drift, none can answer; 
but of one thing we may rest satisfied, that these 
specimens of the rude labor of prehistoric man may 
well claim high antiquity. They are as emphatically 
drift inplements as any which have appeared in the 
diluvial matrix of France. Thus, in Nacoochee, while 
the Neolithic age is richly represented, the Paleolithic 
period is not entirely wanting in its characteristic 
types. 

If we are ignorant of the time when the Chatta- 
hoochee first sought a highway to the Gulf — if we know 
not the age of the artificial tumuli which still grace 
its banks — if we are uncertain when the red nomads 
who in fear and wonder carried the burdens of the 
adventurous De Soto as he conducted his followers 
through primeval forests and by the side of this softly- 
moving stream, first became dwellers here — how shall 
we answer when questioned as to the age in which 
these rude drift implements were fashioned and used 
by the primitive peoples ? 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Agriculture and Agricultural Implements. — Ceremony of the Busk. — Cultivation 
of Maize. — Mortars and Pestles. — Crushing-Stones. — Nut-Stones. — Use of 
Walnut and Hickory-nut Oil. 

Although in the mythology of the red-men of the 
South the beneficent Ceres, who first taught mortals 
how to turn the soil with a plough, 1 received no indi- 
vidual deification, they were not insensible of her be- 
nignant influences, ever present in the genial warmth 
of bright shies, engendering fertility in the soft earth 
and causing to spring up beneath their feet a beauti- 
ful plant whose fruit proved in very deed a " staff of 
life." By nothing was the gradual development of the 
semi-civilization of the Muscogulges, the Creeks, the 
Choctaws, the Cherokees, and other Indian tribes more 
clearly indicated than by their general and regular 
cultivation of the maize, an American plant, whose 
value — recognized by these aborigines for many ante- 
cedent centuries and extensively appreciated at the 
dawn of the historic period — has ever since received 
ready acknowledgment wherever introduced to the 
notice of civilized man. Regarded as a direct gift from 
the Author of Life to his red children, it was highly 

1 "Publii Virgilii Maronis Georgica," lib. i., v. 146. Londoni, apud A. Dulau 
& Co., 1800. 



CULTIVATION OF MAIZE. 



297 



prized and held in peculiar esteem. To make light 
of, or waste either the grain, or the cob from which it 
was taken, was never permitted. Certain ceremonies 
were observed in the spring when it was planted; 
and of all their rites the Busk — celebrated just be- 
fore they garnered the ripe ears from the fields — was, 
perhaps, the most solemn and imposing. Of the 
American Indians the Southern nations were the most 
civilized and the least nomadic in their habits. En- 
joying a mild climate, and possessing fruitful and well- 
watered valleys, they located permanent seats, were 
provident of the future, and surrounded themselves 
with more of the comforts and conveniences of life than 
appertained to the Northern and Western hunter tribes. 
Attached to the soil, often building considerable towns 
fortified by palisades, and composed of huts and houses 
substantial after their kind, and furnished with mats, 
benches, and various aptly-made domestic utensils, they 
lifted themselves at least somewhat above that rude, 
beggarly, and precarious existence which so painfully 
characterized the condition of so many of the aborigi- 
nes inhabiting other portions of this country, oppressed 
by greater penury and contending against the rigors of 
more tempestuous seasons. 

The territory over which cultivation by the natives 
extended, is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, 
on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, on the west, gen- 
erally by the Mississippi, or perhaps more properly 
by the prairies, and on the north by the nature of the 
climate. 1 The population of those regions in which the 
soil was cultivated, was more permanent and numer- 
ous than that of localities where the individuals relied 

1 See Mr. Gallatin's " Synopsis of the Indian Tribes," " Archreologia Ameri- 
cana," vol ii., p. 149. 



29S ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

for their subsistence upon the natural products of the 
earth and the waters. It was also less barbarous. 
The most cursory examination of the early accounts 
will advise us of the fact that maize was extensively 
cultivated by, and formed a standard article of food 
anions the Southern Indians. The English at James- 
town were, at times, almost wholly sustained by the 
liberality of the natives ; and Captain John Smith, in 
recounting the friendship of Pocahontas, mentions the 
circumstance that she in person accompanied from the 
Indian fields the " conductas of grain which relieved 
the wants of the colonists. Both Cabega de Vaca 1 and 
Captain Eibault 2 found it growing freely in Florida. 
From Tampa Bay, De Soto addressed a letter to 
the Justice and Board of Magistrates in Santiago de 
Cuba, informing them that Baltazar de Gallegos, 
whom, with eighty lancers and a hundred foot-soldiers, 
he sent to reconnoitre the country, had seen " fields of 
maize, beans, and pumpkins, with other fruits and pro- 
visions, in such quantity as would suffice to subsist a 
very large army without its knowing a want." 3 On one 
occasion his army marched for two leagues through 
continuous fields of corn. During the progress of the 
expedition the Spanish soldiers subsisted almost ex- 
clusively upon food furnished by the natives. The 
maize, stored in granaries and standing in cultivated 
fields, furnished bread for the troops, while the blades 
of the corn proved excellent forage for the horses. 

TVhile passing through the pine-barren regions, 
where the soil was poor and the population scant, 
bitterly did the Christians complain of the hardships 

1 " Relation," etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 35. New York, 1871. 

2 "The Whole and True Discoverye of Terra Florida." London, 1563. 

3 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Bucking- 
ham Smith, p. 285. New York, 1866. 



CULTIVATION OF MAIZE. 



299 



there encountered. Often were they sorely pressed to 
escape starvation. Ample fields and houses filled with 
corn were frequently met farther on, and there heavy 
were the contributions levied, and numerous the cap- 
tives made who were compelled, even in chains, to 
accompany the conquerors and bear weighty burdens 
of maize and mortars in which to prepare it for cook- 
ing. It would appear from the early narratives that 
the principal towns and maize-fields of the natives 
were located in rich valleys where a generous soil 
yielded with least labor the most remunerative har- 
vest. "While beans, pumpkins, dried plums, grapes, 
persimmons, mulberries, nuts, and other spontaneous 
products of the earth, were freely used, it is quite cer- 
tain that the Southern Indians relied chiefly upon their 
crops of corn. Upon its cultivation general and sys- 
tematic attention was bestowed. In a former chapter 
we have seen that the grooved axe was extensively 
employed in girdling trees so as to deprive them of 
life, and thus, in the end, cause the forest-growth to 
disappear from the spots which had been selected for 
cultivation. Indian fields in which not even the trace 
of a stump or root could be perceived were frequently 
observed by the first European settlers. For the loca- 
tion of such fields the richest spots adjacent to the 
villages were selected. These were planted in com- 
mon — no fences, 1 in the olden time, indicating the 
bounds of individual labor, or private storehouses 
the fruits of personal toil. The soil was the property 
of all — and each, sharing in the general toil, partici- 
pated in the common harvest. " About their houses," 
says Captain Eibault, "they labor and till the ground, 
sowing their fields with a grain called MaMs, whereof 



1 See Brickell's "Natural History of Xortk Carolina," p. 314. Dublin, 1737. 



300 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



they make their meal, and in their gardens they plant 
beans, gourds, cucumbers, citrons, peas, and many other 
fruits and roots unknown to us. Their spades and 
mattocks be made of wood, so well and fitly as is pos- 
sible, which they make with certain stones, oyster- 
shells and muscles, wherewith also they make their 
bows and small lances, and cut and polish all sorts of 
wood that they employ about their buildings and ne- 
cessary use." 1 

The Gentleman of Elvas 2 intimates that each In- 
dian had his own field which he planted and harvested 
for his individual account. The natural fruits, he con- 
tinues, were common for all. In some parts of the 
territory traversed by Cabeca de Vaca 3 three crops of 
maize and beans were raised during the year. A 
Natchez chief, among other things, offered M. Le Page 
Du Pratz 4 twenty barrels of maize in exchange for a 
sun-glass. 

We are informed by Adair 5 that while the gar- 
dens contiguous to the houses were fenced in, the large 
fields were, in this regard, quite unprotected. In plate 
xxi. of the " Brevis Narratio," six Indians are seen 
busily engaged in preparing the ground and in plant- 
ing corn. No fences or enclosures of any sort are rep- 
resented. It would appear from the explanatory note 6 

1 "The Whole and True Discoverye of Terra Florida." London, 1563. 

2 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Bucking- 
ham Smith, p. 201. New York, 1866. 

3 " Relation," etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 172. New York, 1871. 

4 " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 183. London, 1763. 

5 "History of the American Indians," p. 406. London, 1775. 

6 "Diligenter colunt terram Indi, earn ob causam ligones e piscium ossibus pa- 
rare norunt viri, quibus manubria lignea aptantes, terram fodiunt satis facile, nam 
mollior est : ea deinde probe confracta & sequata, feminse fabas & milium sive 
Mayzum serunt, praeeuntibus nonnullis, quae defixo in terram baculo foramina faci- 
unt, in quae fabee & milij grana inijciantur. Facta semente, agros relinquunt," etc. 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 



301 



that the Indians diligently cultivated the soil, using 
for this purpose fish-bones attached to wooden handles. 
With these agricultural implements the men broke up 
and made even the surface of the ground. Following 
after them came the women who, with the aid of 
sticks, made holes in the newly-prepared and soft earth, 
into which beans and grains of corn, carried for that 
purpose in small baskets, were dropped. The plant- 
ing being over, the seed was left to fructify — but little 
attention being bestowed upon the growing crop. 1 

No specimens of these bone agricultural imple- 
ments or of the wooden spades and mattocks 2 men- 
tioned by Captain Ribault have passed under our ob- 
servation. These, as well as the scapulas of the deer 
and the buffalo, which were used for a similar purpose, 
have crumbled into dust. Occasionally, however, we 
meet with stone hoes, of which Fig. 1, Plate XVII., 
may be regarded as typical. This relic is made of 
greenstone. It is five inches and a quarter in length, 
and nearly two inches and three-quarters in width. 
For a distance of more than two inches and a half 
from the edge it exhibits on both sides that delicate 
polish which is engendered only by constant attrition 
and long-continued use. The groove afforded the 
means of lashing it securely to a handle whose end 
was doubtless bent for that purpose, so that the blade 
should remain at right angles to it. It will be ob- 
served that this implement is slightly curved, and has 
very much the appearance of the half of a grooved 
axe split in twain longitudinally. It is, nevertheless, 

1 Compare " A Briefe and True Report of the New-found Land of Virginia,"' 
etc., "made in English by Thomas Hariot," etc., pp. 14, 15. Francoforti ad 
Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 

2 See also BrickelFs " Natural History of North Carolina," p. 326. Dublin, 1737. 
Bospu's "Travels through Louisiana," etc., vol. i., p. 224. London, 1771. Los- 
kiel's "History," etc., p. 68. London, 1794. 



302 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



a complete and well-formed hoe. Remembering the 
shallow manner in which the natives cultivated the 
soil, we can readily believe that it would have abun- 
dantly answered the purpose for which we suppose it 
to have been designed. Fig. 2, Plate XVII., represents 
a spade made of greenstone which was found by Prof. 
Joseph Jones in a Tennessee grave-mound. Were 
the handle shorter, it might be classed as a scraper or 
smoothing-stone. This implement is beautifully pol- 
ished. Its entire length is seventeen inches and a 
quarter, the handle— which is round and tapering — be- 
ing fourteen inches and a quarter long, and the blade 
three inches long and nearly as wide. The blade, both 
on its sides and bottom, was brought to an edge. We 
suppose this to have been an agricultural tool. 

Large and roughly-chipped, leaf-shaped flint imple- 
ments, of which Figs. 3, 4, and 5, Plate XVII., may 
be taken as types, are found in considerable numbers. 
These, we think, should be properly classed among 
primitive agricultural tools. None of them, however, 
so far as my observation extends, are as well formed or 
clearly marked as the notched implements from East 
St. Louis, so well described by Prof. Rau in the Smith- 
sonian Report for 1868. 1 

After favoring us with an account of the manner 
in which the Louisiana Indians constructed their huts, 
Du Pratz 2 says : " Near all their habitations they have 
fields of maiz and of another nourishing grain called 
Clioupichoal, which grows without culture. For dress- 
ing their fields, they invented houghs which are formed 
in the shape of an l, having the lower part flat and 
sharp ; and to take the husk from their corn they made 

1 P. 401, et seq. 

2 "History of Louisiana," etc., vol. ii., p. 225. London, 1763. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPH I CCD HY.(OSBORNES PROCESS.) 



CEKEMONIES OF THE BOOS-KE-TAU. 



303 



large wooden mortars, by hollowing the trunks of trees 
with fire." 

The corn having attained its maturity, and being 
ready for harvest, a day was named by the mico for the 
celebration of the annual festival known among the 
Creeks as Boos-ke-tau. In Cussetuh, eight days were 
spent in conducting the prescribed ceremonies, while 
in towns of lesser importance four days sufficed for the 
observance of this memorable season of purification, 
thanksgiving, and rejoicing. 

On the morning of the first day, 1 the warriors clean 
the yard of the square and sprinkle it with white sand- 
The a-cee, or decoction of the cassine yupon, is made. 
The fire-maker kindles the fire, as early as he can, by 
friction. Four logs, each as long as a man can cover 
by extending his two arms, are cut and brought by the 
warriors and placed in the centre of the square, end to 
end, thus forming a cross. The outer ends indicate 
the cardinal points. In the centre of the cross the new 
fire is made. These four logs are burnt out during the 
first four days. 

The Pin-e-bun-gau (turkey-dance) is danced by the 
women of the turkey tribe, and while they are dancing 
the possau is brewed. This is a powerful emetic. 
From twelve o'clock to the middle of the afternoon the 
possau is drunk. After this four men and four women 
dance the Toc-co-yule-gau (tadpole). From evening 
until daylight E-ne-hou-bun-gau (the dance of the peo- 
ple second in command) is danced by the men. - 

About ten o'clock, the second day, the women dance 
Its-ho-bun-gau (the gun-dance). After twelve, the 
men go to the new fire, take some of the ashes, rub 



1 " Sketch of the Creek Country by Colonel Benjamin Hawkins." Collection 
of the Georgia Historical Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 15. Savannah, 1848. 



304 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



them on the chin, neck, and belly, jump head-foremost 
into the river, and then return into the square. The 
women having prepared the new corn for the feast, the 
men take some of it and rub it between their hands 
and then on their faces and breasts, and then they feast. 

During the third day the men sit in the square. 

Early in the morning of the fourth day the women 
get the new fire, clean out their hearths, sprinkle them 
with sand, and kindle their fires. The men finish 
burning out the first four logs, and then rubbing them- 
selves with the ashes on their chins, necks, and bellies, 
go into the water. This day salt is eaten, and they 
dance Obungauchapco (the long dance). 

The fifth day four new logs are brought and placed 
in the same position as on the first. They drink also 
a-cee, the strong decoction of the cassine yupon. 

During the sixth day they remain in the square. 

The seventh day is passed in like manner. 

On the eighth day they get two large pots and 
their physic-plants, to wit: Mic-co-ho-yon-e-juh, Toloh, 
A-che-nau, C up-pau-pos-cau, Chu-lis-sau, Tuck-thlau-lus- 
te, Tote-cul-hil-lis-so-wau, Chofeinsuck-cau-fuck-au, Cho- 
fe-mus-see, Hil-lis-hut-ke, To-te-cuh-chooc-his-see, Welau- 
nuh, Oak-chon-utch-co, and Co-hal-le-wau-gee. These 
are all put into the pots and beaten up with water. The 
chemists (E-lic-chul-gee, called by the traders physic- 
makers) blow into the decoction through a small reed, 
and then the men drink it and rub it over their joints 
until the afternoon. They then collect old corn-cobs 
and pine-burs, and, placing them in a pot, burn them 
to ashes. Four virgins who have never had their men- 
ses bring ashes from their houses, and, having put 
them into the pot, stir all together. The men take 
white clay, and mix it with water in two pans. A pan 



CEEEMOmES OF THE BOOS-KE-TAU. 



305 



of this clay and one of ashes are carried to the cabin 
of the mico. Two pans similarly filled are taken to 
the cabin of the warriors. With the clay and ashes 
they rub themselves. Two men, appointed to that 
office, bring flowers of tobacco of a small kind (Itch- 
au-chu-le-puc-pug-gee) or, as the name imports, the old 
man's tobacco, which was prepared on the first day, 
and putting it in a pan on the mico's cabin, give a 
little of it to all who are present. 

The mico and councillors then go four times 
around the fire, and every time they face the east 
throw some of the flowers into the fire. They then 
go and stand to the west. The same ceremony is re- 
peated by the warriors. 

A cane is stuck up at the cabin of the mico, with 
two white feathers in its end. A member of the Fish 
tribe (Thlot-lo-ul-gee) takes it just as the sun goes 
down and moves off toward the river, all following 
him. When half-way to the river, he gives the death- 
whoop. This he repeats four times between the 
square and the water's edge. Here, they all locate 
themselves as close together as they can stand. The 
cane is stuck up at the water's edge, and they all put 
a grain of the old man's tobacco on their heads and in 
each ear. At a given signal, four times repeated, they 
throw some of this tobacco into the river, and every 
man upon a. like signal plunges into the stream and 
picks up four stones from the bottom. With these 
they cross themselves four times on the breast, each 
time throwing a stone into the river and giving the 
death-whoop. They then wash themselves, take up 
the cane with the feathers, return and stick it up in 
the square, and visit through the town. At night they 
dance O-bun-gau-Haujo (the mad dance), and this 



306 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN" INDIANS. 



finishes the ceremony. This happy institution of the 
Boos-ke-tuk 1 restores man to himself, his family, and to 
his nation. It is a general amnesty which not only 
, absolves the Indians from all crimes, murder excepted, 
but seems to bury guilt itself in oblivion. In ancient 
times this festival was celebrated at the appearance 
of the first new moon during which the corn became 
fully eared. Subsequently, however, it was regulated 
by the season of the harvest. 2 From the time con- 
sumed and the formalities observed in its solemniza- 
tion, it is manifest how important and sacred this 
Feast of the Busk was in the estimation of the agricul- 
tural tribes of the South. The ingathering of the 
matured maize-crop was preceded by an extinguish- 
ment of former fires and the kindling of one consecrated 
new flame, which was to prove the parent of light and 
heat for the coming year. This was the season of 
physical and moral purification, of general forgiveness, 
universal amnesty and united thanksgiving. Then 
was the blotted chapter of the old year closed and 
sealed, and a new, clean page opened in the life of 
every one. No wonder that these primitive peoples 
held this maize in special honor and watched its growth 
with emotions other than and superior to those which 
would have been suggested, had they regarded it 

1 For other accounts of the solemnization of this festival, see Du Pratz' " His- 
tory of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 189, et seq. ; Schoolcraft's 14 Archives of Aboriginal 
Knowledge," vol. v., p. 267, et seq. ; Adair's " History of the American Indians," p. 
99, et seq. ; Bartram's "Indians of the South," part 1, of vol. iii. of the Transac- 
tions of the American Ethnological Society. Bartram's " Travels through North 
and South Caroling, Georgia," etc., etc., p. 507, et seq. ; Brickell's " Natural His- 
tory of North Carolina," p. 326. 

For the ceremony and preparation of the Black-Drink, see Schoolcraft's "Ar- 
chives of Aboriginal Knowledge," vol. v., p. 266, et seq. ; "Brevis Narratio," plate 
xxix. 

2 Adair's " History of the American Indians," etc., p. 99. London, 1775. 



HARVESTING THE CKOPS. PUBLIC GRANARIES. 307 

simply as an ordinary plant and a common article of 
food. 

This festival over, immediate attention was directed 
to harvesting the crop. Bartram 1 says that the whole 
town then assembled, and every man carried to his 
own granary the fruits of his labor from the part of 
the general plantation allotted to him in the spring. 
This share of the harvest became his individual prop- 
erty. Previous, however, to their carrying off their 
crops from the field, he continues, " there is a large 
crib or granary, erected in the plantation, which is 
called the king's crib ; and to this each family carries 
and deposits a certain quantity according to his ability 
or inclination, or none at all if he so chooses : this in 
appearance seems a tribute or revenue to the Mico ; 
but, in fact, is designed for another purpose, i. e., that 
of a public treasury supplied by a few and voluntary 
contributions, and to which every citizen has the right 
of free and equal access when his own private stores 
are consumed ; to serve as a surplus to fly to for suc- 
cour ; to assist neighbouring towns, whose crops may 
have failed ; accommodate strangers or travellers ; afford 
provisions or supplies when they go forth on hostile 
expeditions ; and for all other exigencies of the state ; 
and this treasure is at the disposal of the king or 
Mico." 

It is probable that this harvest-labor formerly de- 
volved to a large extent upon the women. In plate 
xxiii. of the " BrevisNarratio," women, and men of that 
bestial class improperly styled in the early narratives 
Hermaphrodites , are busily engaged in the transporta- 
tion of baskets filled with fruits. The preceding plate 
exhibits to us a storehouse — located on the low bank of 



1 "Travels," etc., p. 510. London, 1*792. 



30S 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



a stream — toward which several canoes filled with fruits 
and corn are tending. These granaries or storehouses 
anions: the Florida Indians were built of stones and 
earth, and covered with palmetto-leaves and clay. For 
their erection some cool spot was selected where pro- 
tection was afforded against the violent rays of the sun. 
Such storehouses served as depositories not only for 
maize, fruits, nuts, and roots, but also for dried fishes, 
alligators, dogs, deer, and other jerked meats. These 
were first exposed upon a scaffolding, 1 made of poles, 
beneath which a fire was kindled and kept burning 
until the meat, thoroughly smoked and dried, was thus 
preserved from early decomposition. 

These hoards of corn, meat, and fruits, are frequent- 
ly mentioned in the early narratives. In the language 
of the " Gentleman of Elvas," 2 " four leagues before 
coming to Chiaha fifteen men met the Governor — bear- 
ing loads of maize — with word from the cacique that 
he waited for him, having twenty barbacoas full." 
Garcilasso de la Vega 3 states that one of De Soto's 
officers found in one house five hundred measures of 
ground maize, besides a large quantity in the grain. 
Lawson 4 says that the cabins intended for granaries 5 
were made without windows. 

The maize thus constituting a chief source of sub- 
sistence anions the Southern Indians, it is interesting 
to note the method generally adopted by them in pre- 
paring it for cooking. The Fidalgo of Elvas makes 
the broad assertion that the bread which is eaten 

1 Plate xxiv., " Brevis Narratio." 

2 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 69. New York, 1866. 

3 " Conquete de la Floride," vol. i., p. 250. Leyden, 1731. 

4 "History of Carolina," p. 290. Reprint. Raleigh, 1866. 

6 See also Brickell's "Natural History of North Carolina," p. 327. Dublin, 
1 737. Loskiel's " History," etc., p. 6& London, 1794. 



PREPARATION OF MAIZE FOR FOOD. 



309 



throughout Florida is made of maize ; and, at Apala- 
chen, Cabeca de Vaca observed numerous mortars for 
cracking this grain. In plate xxviii. of the " Brevis 
Narratio " (conviviorum apparatus), a flat, round 
stone mortar, set upon the ground, is represented 
among other articles. A native, on bended knee, 
with a short, stout pestle in his hand, is in the act 
of grinding something for the feast. The intimation 
is, however, that he is at present simply bruising 1 
some fragrant herbs to serve as a seasoning for the food 
which is boiling in the great clay pot. Among the 
North and South Carolina Indians u the savage men 
never beat their corn to make bread, but that is the 
women's work, especially the girls, of whom you shall 
see four beating with long, great pestils in a narrow 
wooden mortar ; and every one keeps her stroke so ex- 
actly, that 'tis worthy of admiration." 2 

" Their common food," says Captain Bernard Ro- 
mans, 3 " is the zea or Indian corn, of which they make 
meal and boil it ; they also parch it and then pound it ; 
thus taking it on their journey they mix it with cold 
water, and will travel a great way without any other 
food ; . . . they have also a way of drying and pound- 
ing their corn before it comes to maturity ; this they 
call boota copassa (i. e., cold flour) ; this in small quan- 
tities thrown into cold water boils and swells as much 
as common meal boiled over a fire ; it is hearty food, 
and being sweet, they are fond of it," etc. 

To Adair 4 are we indebted for the following ac- 
count of the mortars in which the women beat the 

1 " Alter aroniata cibis inspergenda in piano aliquo lapide atterit." 

2 Lawsoivs "History of Carolina," p. 336. Raleigh, reprint, 1860. 

3 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., p. 68. Xew York, 
1775. 

4 "History of the American Indians," etc., p. 416. London, 1*775. 



310 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEBN INDIANS. 

flinty corn until all the husks were carefully taken off, 
and the cracked grains — well sifted and fanned — 
neatly prepared for boiling in large earthen pots : 
" The Indians always used mortars instead of mills, 
and they had them, with almost every other conven- 
, ience, when we first opened a trade with them; they 
cautiously burned a large log to a proper level and 
length, placed fire a-top, and wet mortar round it, in 
order to give the utensil a proper form ; and when the 
fire was extinguished, or occasion required, they chopped 
the inside with their stone-instruments, patiently con- 
tinuing the slow process till they finished the ma- 
chine to the intended purpose." 

Of this maize, the same writer informs us, the In- 
dians of Upper Georgia and the adjacent region pos- 
sessed three varieties : the first was small, matured in 
two months, and was called by the English " six weeks' 
corn ; " the second was yellow and flinty, and known 
among the natives as " hommony-corn ; " while the 
third, which was largest and yielded a white, soft 
grain, was called " bread-corn." " In July, when the 
chestnuts and corn are green and full-grown, they half- 
boil the former and take off the rind ; and having 
sliced the milky, swelled, long rows of the latter, the 
women pound it in a large wooden mortar, which is 
wide at the mouth and gradually narrows to the bot- 
tom ; then they knead both together ; wrap them up in 
green corn-blades of various sizes, about an inch thick^ 
and boil them well, as they do every kind of seethed 
food. This sort of bread is very tempting to the taste, 
and reckoned most delicious to their strong palates. 
They have another sort of boiled bread, which is mixed 
with beans or potatoes ; they put on the soft corn till 
it begins to boil, and pound it sufficiently fine. . . . 



MORTARS AND PESTLES. 



311 



When the flour is stirred and dried by the heat of 
the sun or fire, they sift it with sieves of different 
sizes curiously made of the coarser or finer cane splin- 
ters. The thin cakes niixt with bear's oil were former- 
ly baked on thin broad stones placed over a fire, or 
on broad earthen bottoms fit for such a use. . . . When 
they intend to bake great loaves they make a strong, 
blazing fire, with short, dry, split wood on the hearth. 
When it is burnt down to coals they carefully take 
them off to each side and sweep away the remaining 
ashes ; then they put their well-kneaded broad loaf, 
first steeped in hot water, over the hearth, and an 
earthen bason above it, with the coals and embers 
atop. This method of baking is as clean and effica- 
cious as could possibly be done in any oven ; when 
they take it off they wash the loaf with warm water, 
and it soon becomes firm and very white. It is like- 
wise very wholesome and well-tasted to any except the 
vitiated palate of an Epicure." 

While it is well ascertained that wooden mortars 
and pestles were in general use among the Indians 1 
at the period of our first acquaintance with them, and 
furnished a ready method for husking and pounding 
their maize, it is equally certain that at some remote 
time mortars, pestles, and crushing implements, made 
of stone, were not uncommon. Dr. Dickeson and other 
explorers have found them in the tumuli of Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. They have been 
taken from the mounds of South Carolina and Florida. 
From a single relic-bed on the riodit bank of the Savan- 
nah Eiver, a few miles above Augusta, I obtained, at 

1 See Du Pratz' "History of Louisiana," vol. xi., p. 225. London, 1763. 
Loskiel's " History," etc., p. 67. London, 1*794. Schoolcraft's " Archives of 
Aboriginal Knowledge," vol. iii., Plate 28, Fig. C. 



312 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

one time, thirteen stone mortars made of flat bowlders 
taken from the bed of the stream and hollowed out 
on both sides to the depth of two or three inches. 
{See Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XVIII.) The average diame- 
tsr of these shallow, basin-like excavations was rather 
more than nine inches. No labor had been expended 
in shaping the stones. The natives took them as they 
f jund them, and simply formed the cavities. Placed 
upon the ground or held in the lap, with the assistance 
of the ordinary disk-shaped crushing-stones — large 
numbers of which were seen in the vicinity — the 
green corn could have been mashed, the parched corn 
pounded, or the husks beaten from the ripe grains. 
This rude variety is frequently met with in many por- 
tions of the State. Belonging to the same class, ex- 
cept that it has been hollowed out only on one side, is 
the mortar represented in Fig. 3, Plate XVIII. 

The bowl is scarely more than an inch in depth, 
and about five inches in diameter. By far the most 
symmetrical and carefully-fashioned mortar I have seen 
was ploughed up in a field in Liberty County, some 
ten miles from the sea-coast. Made of a yellow, ferru- 
ginous quartz, with a flat bottom and circular walls 
gradually expanding as they rose, its general shape 
was that of an inverted, truncated cone. Entirely arti- 
ficial, the exterior was well polished. About ten inch- 
es high, eight inches in diameter at the top, and 
seven inches at the bottom, the interior had been ex- 
cavated to the depth of nearly eight inches. At the 
top the walls were about three-quarters of an inch 
thick, and increased in thickness as they descended. No 
material exists in this section of the State from which 
such a utensil could have been manufactured. The 
probability is, that it was made at a considerable re- 



7>late JHH. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO. N Y OSBORM; PROCESS 



MORTARS. 



313 



move from the spot where it was found, and was sub- 
sequently brought to the coast by some primitive mer- 
chantman, by whom it was there exchanged for sea- 
shells and other articles of value native to this region. 
Upon its construction great time and labor must have 
been expended ; and this relic is a remarkable illus- 
tration of the skill and patient industry of the ancient 
workman, who, unassisted by any metallic tools, was 
able from such a hard substance to fashion a mortar 
so serviceable and so admirable in all its proportions. 
A mortar not unlike in its general appearance was ob- 
tained by the Rev. George Howe, D. D., from an In- 
dian cemetery on the bank of the Congaree River, a 
few miles from Columbia, South Carolina. It is figured 
in the plate facing page 178 of the sixth volume of Mr. 
Schoolcraft's " Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge." 
In a subsequent chapter we will observe that some of 
the imperforate discoidal stones clearly indicate that 
at some time or other they have been diverted from 
the original purpose for which they were manufac- 
tured, and have been treated as mortars. This sec- 
ondary use entitles such, to specific mention in this 
connection. In addition to the stone mortars de- 
scribed, I have seen, in the middle and upper parts of 
the State, large bowlders — some of them waist-high — 
permanent in their location, whose tops had been hol- 
lowed out for mortars. These cavities were circular 
in form, and capable of holding a half-peck or more. 
They may be regarded as public property, and afford 
proof of the stability of the agricultural population by 
which they were used. Hunter 1 alludes to the pres- 
ence of wooden mortars anion 2 the tribes west of the 

o 

1 " Manners and Customs of Several Indian Tribes located west of the Missis- 
sippi," pp. 269, 210. Philadelphia, 1823. 



314 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



Mississippi, and says that, "in addition, each village 
has one or two large stone mortars for pounding corn ; 
they are placed in a central situation, are public prop- 
erty, and are used in rotation by the different families." 
Mr. Bartlett counted, at El Paso, twenty-six artificial 
cavities in detached blocks of stone which had been 
hollowed out by the Indians, and served as mortars in 
which to pound their maize. 1 The pestles handled in 
connection with the wooden mortars, consisted of pieces 
of hard wood between three and four feet long, heavy 
and rounded at each end, and narrow in the middle 
where they were grasped. 

Stone pestles — of which Figures 4 and 5, Plate 
XVIII., are typical representations — were both shorter 
and narrower, varying in length from seven to eigh- 
teen inches, and from one to three inches in diameter. 
Usually rounded at both ends, there are some which 
expand at the lower end, 2 thus affording a circular, 
flat crushing surface. The upper ends of others are 
ornamented — being sculptured after the similitude of 
the head of a bird, animal, or snake, and sometimes in 
imitation of the male organ of generation. 

Figures 6 and 8, Plate XVIII., represent the cus- 
tomary forms of maize-crushers or triturating stones. 
Relics of this class are very numerous. They are gen- 
erally circular in form, with two flat surfaces, or one 
flat and the other convex, and can be conveniently 
grasped and manipulated with the hand. The flat 
surfaces plainly indicate the use to which they were 
applied. Sometimes round, water- worn pebbles were 
employed as mealing-stones — -no pains having been 

1 " Explorations," etc., vol. ii., p. 3*70. New York, 1854. 

2 Compare " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 220, Fig. 118. 
Washington, 1848. 



PESTLES. MAIZE-CRUSHERS. NUT-STONES. 3 1 5 



taken to modify their natural shapes where they could 
be made serviceable. Dioiite, quartz-rock, agate, and 
flint, were the favorite materials from which these 
pestles and maize-crushers were manufactured. 

In this connection, it seems proper that we should 
notice a class of relics found in considerable quantities 
in Middle and Upper Georgia. When I first observed 
them upon the site of an ancient Indian village near the 
confluence of Great Kiokee Creek and the Savannah 
River, I was somewhat at a loss to comprehend their 
precise use. More than thirty were there seen within 
the space of a few acres. They consist of irregular 
masses of compact sandstone or soap-stone, weighing 
from two to ten pounds, in whose surfaces occur cir- 
cular depressions from an inch to an inch and a half in 
diameter, and from one-quarter to three-quarters of an 
inch in depth. Upon the broadest and flattest sides, 
these depressions, from three to five in number, are 
located close together. (See Fig. 7, Plate XVIII.) To 
produce them the harder stones had been pecked, and 
the softer, gouged. Not only on one side do they ap- 
pear, but frequently on both sides and often in the 
ends, so that the stone, when set up in the earth on any 
one of its faces, would always present one or more of 
these cup-shaped cavities, ready for use. 

The Gentleman of Elvas 1 informs us that in Chiaha, 
" There was abundance of lard in calabashes, drawn 
like olive-oil, which the inhabitants said was the fat 
of bear. There was likewise found much oil of wal- 
nuts, which, like the lard, was clear and of good taste." 

Biedma 2 confirms this statement, and says, " In this 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 69. New York, 1866. 

2 Ibid., p. 241. New York, 1866, 



316 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

province where we began to find the towns set about 
with fence, the Indians get a large quantity of oil from 
walnuts r At various points reached during the prog- 
ress of the expedition, walnuts were found stored in 
the granaries of the natives ; and Cabeca de Vaca as- 
serts that these nuts, ground with a small kind of 
grain, furnished subsistence for two months in the 
year. 1 Under the term walnut, the historians of the 
expedition probably included not only the nut which 
we designate by that name, but also all the varieties 
of the hickory-nut with which the country abounded. 
It is clear that in his forty-fourth chapter the Knight 
of Elvas confounds the pecan-nut with the walnut. 2 
" Westward of the Kio Grande," says he, " the walnut 
differs from that which is found before coming there, 
being of tenderer shell, and in form like an acorn: 
while that behind, from the river back to the port of 
Espiritu Santo, is generally rather hard, the tree and 
the nut being in their appearance like those of Spain." 
Among the Indians of Louisiana so important an article 
of food was the walnut, that the thirteenth moon was 
called the walnut moon. It was during that month 
that they cracked their nuts to make bread of them by 
mixing them with the flour of maize. 3 Bernard Ro- 
mans 4 assures us that the Florida Indians used hickory- 
nuts in plenty, making from them a milky liquor of 
which they were very fond, and which they ate with 
sweet potatoes. 5 From Bartram's Travels, 5 we extract 

1 " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 90. New York, 1871. 

a u Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 202. New York, 1866. 

3 Du Pratz' " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 195. London, 1763. 

4 " A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., p. 68. New 
York, 1775. 

5 Page 38. London, 17S2. 



USE OF HICKORY-NUTS AND WALNUTS. 



317 



the following : " We then passed over large, rich savan- 
nas, or natural meadows, wide-spreading cane swamps, 
and frequently old Indian settlements, now deserted 
and overgrown with forests. These are always on or 
near the banks of rivers, or great swamps, the artificial 
mounts and terraces elevating them above the surround- 
ing groves. I observed in the ancient cultivated fields : 
1. Diospyros ; 2. Grleditsia triacanthos ; 3. Prunus chica- 
sau; 4. Callicarpa; 5. Moras rubra; 6. Juglans ex- 
altata ; 7. Juglans nigra, which inform us that these 
trees were cultivated by the ancients on account of 
their fruit as being wholesome and nourishing food. 
Though these are natives of the forest, 1 yet they thrive 
better, and are more fruitful in cultivated plantations, 
and the fruit is in great estimation with the present 
generation of Indians, particularly Juglans exaltata, 
commonly called shell-barked hiccory. The Creeks 
store up the last in their towns. I have seen above 
an hundred bushels of these nuts belonging to one 
family. They pound them to pieces, and then cast 
them into boiling water, which, after passing through 
fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of the 
liquid ; this, they call by a name which signifies hic- 
cory milk ; it is as sweet and rich as fresh cream, and 
is an ingredient in most of their cookery, especially 
homony and corn cakes." Referring to the use made 
of walnuts by the Virginia Indians, Hariot writes: 
" Besides their eating of them after our ordinarie 
maner, they breake them with stones, and pound them 
in morters with water to make a milk which they vse 
to put into some sorts of their spoonmeate ; also among 

1 " The Chickasaw plumb, I think, must be excepted, for, though certainly a 
native of America, yet I never saw it wild in the forests, but always in old deserted 
Indian plantations : I suppose it to have been brought from the southwest beyond 
the Mississippi by the Chicasaws." 



318 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

their soclde wheat, peaze, beanes, and pompions which 
maketh them haue a farre more pleasant taste." 1 

We have thus, at some length, referred to the use 
of nuts as an article of food among the Southern In- 
dians, because we hence derive the meaning and em- 
ployment of these cup-shaped cavities. In our judg- 
ment these relics are simply the stones upon which the 
Indians cracked their nuts. Their cavities are so 
located that one, two, three, four, five, and sometimes 
more nuts could be cracked at a single blow delivered 
by means of the circular, flat crushing-stone so com- 
mon, and 'so often found in direct connection with the 
rude articles now under consideration. The cups are 
just large enough to hold a hickory-nut or a walnut in 
proper position so that, when struck, its pieces would 
be prevented from being widely scattered. Particu- 
larly do the soap-stones indicate the impressions left 
by the convex surfaces of the harder nuts. Upon some 
of them the depressions seem to have been caused 
simply by repeatedly cracking the nuts upon the same 
spot so that in time a concavity was produced corre- 
sponding to the half of the spherical or spheroidal nut. 
Such is the most natural explanation we can offer with 
regard to the use of these stones. 

In one of the "Western mounds Messrs. Squier and 
Davis found a block of compact sandstone, weighing 
between thirty and forty pounds, with several circular 
depressions resembling those in the work-blocks of 
coppersmiths in which plates of metal are hammered 
to give them convexity. These depressions were arti- 
ficial, and possessed various diameters. It was suggested 



1 " A Briefe and True Report," etc., p. 18. Francoforti ad Mcenum. De Bry, 
anno 1590. 



STONES UPON WHICH NUTS WERE CRACKED. 319 



that in such moulds disks or medals of copper were 
formed. 1 

Colonel Charles Whittlesey, in a recent monograph, 2 
alludes to the existence of hundreds of stones, in Cuy- 
ahoga Valley and throughout the northern portion of 
Ohio, with circular, cup-shaped cavities, sometimes on 
one side and again on both sides, with diameters 
varying from a point to an inch and a half, and half 
the diameter in depth, which, from the description 
given and from the photograph of one of them, we are 
inclined to regard as very similar to, if not identical 
with, those which have just engaged our attention.. 
He pronounces them swindle-socket stones. Without 
a personal inspection of these relics it would not be 
proper to express a decided opinion ; and yet, in view 
of the facts as they appear, we cannot resist the im- 
pression that these too are stones on which nuts were 
cracked by the primitive peoples who dwelt in 
the rich valleys of Ohio. It comports not with our 
present design to criticise the suggestions of Messrs. 
Squier and Davis, and of Colonel Whittlesey, with re- 
gard to the particular specimens which claimed their 
examination ; nevertheless, I am free to confess, while 
standing upon the sites of ancient Indian villages, in 
Georgia, at present overshadowed by large hickory and 
walnut trees filled with fruit — calling to mind the re- 
corded observations of the early travellers concurring 
in the statement that the red-men of this region in- 
dustriously collected and hoarded these nuts, using 
them as a favorite article of food in connection with 
their corn-bread and hominy — conjecturing the method 

1 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," pp. 206, 207, Fig. 92. Wash- 
ington, 1848. 

2 " Ancient Earth Forts of the Cuyahoga Valley, Ohio," pp. 33-35, Plate Vni- 
Cleveland, 1871. 



320 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



in all likelihood adopted by these tribes in crushing 
them in order that they might conveniently avail them- 
selves of the rich oil and sweet flavor which dwelt 
within the tough shells— and, upon the very spots 
where they had long since been abandoned, unearthing 
these irregularly-shaped stones with their cup-like cavi- 
ties, I felt persuaded that I saw before me physical 
proofs of the truth of history, and discerned in the lo- 
cality, in their numbers and in the peculiar conforma- 
tion of these rude objects, the purpose they subserved 
in the olden time. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



Fishing. — "Wears. — Nets. — Net-sinkers. — Plummets. 

Befoke tlie axe of the European Avas lifted against 
the primeval trees, or that system of drainage and de- 
nudation inaugurated by which large tracts of densely- 
wooded lands have been gradually converted into culti- 
vated fields and the pleasant sites of cities and villages, 
swamps, meadows, and forests, abounded with game of 
every description native to this semi-tropical region. 
Amid the general silence which then reigned unbroken, 
save by the voices of Nature and the occasional dances, 
festivities and war-whoops of the aborigines, there was 
little to terrify the wild animals at sport or pasture, 
scarcely any thing to affright the birds from their ac- 
customed homes. The Indian population — limited at 
best and confined to chosen seats — was characterized 
by remarkable taciturnity. On every hand the air 
was vocal with the variant notes of the feathered tribe, 
and every brake was alive with the forms of animal 
life. Buffaloes, bears, deer, cougars, wild-cats, raccoons, 
opossums, beavers, rabbits, squirrels, and other quadru- 
peds, frequented the woods and congregated thickly in 
the moss-clad margins which environed the slu^oish 
lagoons, undisturbed save by the noiseless yet fatal 

21 



322 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



arrow of the red hunter, uninterrupted in their daily 
ranges except by occasional villages scattered here and 
there at long intervals throughout this vast domain. 

The buffalo long since ceased to exist in this region. 
But few streams give present token of the industry of 
the beaver. Bears confine themselves to the vine- 
covered depths of unfrequented swamps. The cry of 
the cougar is seldom heard in the night-watches. The 
wolf is no longer a pest, and from whole districts the 
deer has been expelled. For the untamed denizens of 
the forest, agriculture and civilization have made no 
reservations. Expatriation and death have been meted- 
out even to the hunter-tribes ; and they, too, are dwell- 
ers here no longer. In that ancient time, however, 
there was no lack of food either in the woods or in the 
waters. The early narratives frequently mention pres- 
ents of deer, bears, and wild-turkeys, at the hands of 
the Indians, and perpetuate the admiration of the 
Europeans as they beheld, for the first time, the path- 
less forests teeming with game. " The Indians never 
lack meat," says the Fidalgo of Elvas. " With arrows 
they get abundance of deer, turkeys, conies, and other 
wild animals, being very skilful in killing game." 1 
"They are excellent Hunters," affirms Thomas Ash, 
" their Weapons the Bow and Arrow made of a Read 
pointed with sharp Stones or Fish Bones." 2 Still- 
hunting was the favorite style, and in plate xxv. of the 
" Brevis Narratio " we have a quaint picture of three 
Florida Indians who, concealed in the skins of stags, 
and with drawn bows in their hands, have crept upon 

1 Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," etc., p. 55. Translation 
of Buckingham Smith. New York, 1866. 

2 " Carolina," etc., by T. A., Gent., p. 35. London, 1682. 



HUNTING THE ROE-DEER. 



323 



and are on the eve of discharging their barbed arrows 
into a herd of deer drinking at a stream. 1 

Bossu 2 thus describes the method adopted by the 
Alibamons in hunting the roe-deer : " An Indian takes 
the head of a roe-buck and dries it ; he then carries it 
with him into the woods, where he covers his back 
with the skin of this animal ; he puts his hand into 
the neck of the dried head, taking care to put little 
hoops under the skin to keep it firm on the hand ; he 
then kneels down, and in that attitude, mimicking the 
voice of these creatures, he shews the head ; the roe-deer 
are deceived by it and come very near the hunters, who 
are sure to kill them." 

As the woods were well stocked with game, so also 
was there plenteous supply of fishes in ponds, lakes, 
rivers, and arms of the sea. Depending for subsistence 
upon wild animal, bird, and fish, the natives were com- 
pelled to devo'te most of their time to hunting and fish- 
ing. Certain seasons were entirely set apart to these 
pursuits, and with formal ceremonies and solemn invo- 
cations were the general expeditions in quest of game 
inaugurated. With no domesticated animal except the 
dog, they were not entirely improvident of the future. 
Public granaries 3 there were, in which were carefully 
stored the gathered corn and native fruits. At the 
appointed moons 4 the men assembled for hunting and 
fishing, often departing upon long journeys, and return- 
ing laden with well-dried meat and the skins of the 
slain. 

1 " Brevis Narratio," etc., plate xxv. Francofcrti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 
1591. 

2 " Travels through Louisiana," vol. i., p. 259. London, 1771. 

3 "Brevis Narratio," plate xxii. 

4 Generally toward the end of October. Bossu's u Travels through Louisiana,"' 
vol. i., p. 259. London, 1771. 



324 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

In that remote period when rivers and bays were 
navigated only by light cypress canoes whose paddles 
scarce caused a quiver among the pliant reeds which 
fringed their banks, when every pond and swamp was 
fenced in by robust trees and penetrated by huge roots 
and fallen trunks affording ample protection to the 
finny tribe, the waters, one and all, were doubtless far 
more replete with animal life than they are at the pres- 
ent time. The appetites and the more skilful contriv- 
ances of a superior and a denser population, the de- 
struction of forests, the drainage of natural reservoirs, 
and the noises of commerce, have tended materially to 
diminish the supply of fish. So plentiful were the fishes 
in the ponds and shallow puddles which were encoun- 
tered along the line of De Soto's march, that they were 
readily killed with cudgels. The captive Indians, who, 
in chains, were compelled to accompany the expedition, 
while floundering through these lagoons, so disturbed 
the mud at their bottoms, that the "fish becoming 
stupefied, would swim to the surface, when as many 
were taken as were desired." 1 

Eibault says, as he ascended a goodly and great 
river on the Florida coast, he found its waters " boiling 
and roaring through the multitude of all kinds of fish." 

For three or four months in the year the Indians 
resorted to the coast and subsisted mainly upon oys- 
ters. 2 Tribes inhabiting the interior, when in the 
spring the shad were running up the Savannah and 
other Georgia rivers, would encamp upon the bluffs, 
and, during the continuance of the season, devote 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," p. 121, translated by 
Buckingham Smith. New York, 1866. 

2 " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 79. New York, 1871. 



VARIOUS METHODS OF CAPTURING FISH. 325 



themselves almost exclusively to the capture of these 
fishes. The unios and various mussels of the fresh- 
water streams were eagerly collected and opened with 
a view to securing the pearls 1 which they contained, 
and for the purposes of food. Physical proofs of the 
habits of the natives in this regard remain to the pres- 
ent day. Some of the islands and headlands along 
the coast are dotted all over with kitchen-refuse-piles in 
which the shells of oysters, clams, and conchs, largely 
predominate. Extended artificial deposits of a similar 
character, composed of fresh-water shells, are still ex- 
tant in many localities where the flow of the river 
is so interrupted by rocks or shallow places as to fur- 
nish opportunity for the facile construction of wears, 
or permit the eager sportsman to spear the fishes as 
they loitered in the eddies or concealed themselves be- 
neath the shadows of the bowlders rising above the 
level of the brawling current. In these refuse-piles — 
the accumulation of centuries — bones of large fishes 
abound, and net-sinkers are not infrequent. 

It is interesting to note the various methods em- 
ployed by the aborigines for the capture of fish. 

We have the authority of the Knight of Elvas for 
the statement that fish-preserves existed among the 
Southern Indians. 

When De Soto entered Pacaka, he quartered him- 
self in the town where the cacique was accustomed to 
reside. It was enclosed and very large. In its towers 
and palisade were many looj3-holes. Much dry maize 
had been there accumulated, and the new in great 
quantity was growing in the adjacent fields. Kear the 
enclosure was " a great lake, and the water entered a 



1 Garcilasso de la Vega, "Oonquete de la Floride," trad, par Richelet. Leide, 
1731, tome i., livre 2, chap, i., p. 296, et seq. 



326 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

ditch that well nigh went round the town. 1 From the 
Elver Grande to the lake was a canal through which 
the fish came into it, and where the Chief kept them for 
his eating and pastime. With nets that were found in 
the place as many were taken as need required ; and, 
however much might be the casting, there was never 
any lack of them. In the many other lakes about 
were also many fish, though the flesh was soft, and 
none of it so good as that which came from the river." 2 

We have here, as has already been suggested, a 
probable explanation of the principal purpose the 
reservoirs and the ditch surrounding that remarkable 
group of mounds near the Etowah River, on Colo- 
nel Tumlin's plantation, were designed to subserve. 
Through the mouth of that canal fishes could readily 
enter from the river. Once in, that mouth could have 
been closed by means of a wicker-work of cane or split 
wood so as to prevent their escape. Thus introduced 
into these artificial lakes, by a very simple contrivance 
they could be there detained, fed, multiplied, and kept 
ready for daily use. By means of nets they could be 
fished out as occasion required. If it be true, as we 
have surmised, that the large tumulus was a temple of 
the sun, it may be that this canal and these lakes were 
at great labor constructed as fish-preserves for the par- 
ticular benefit of the priests who ministered and the 
devotees who worshipped there. Similar arrangements 
for pisciculture are still to be seen in other localities 
within the present geographical limits of Georgia. 

Fishing with hook and line seems to have obtained 
to a very limited extent, if we may judge from the re- 

1 Biedma says the town was " situated on a plain, well fenced about, and sur- 
rounded by a water-ditch made by band." 

2 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 112, New York, 1866. 



VARIOUS METHODS OF CAPTURING FISH. 32? 

markable absence of any thing like bone, flint, and 
shell hooks in the mounds and refuse-piles. Very few 
hooks have been found, so far as our information ex- 
tends, and they were made of bone. 

Fishes were often captured by means of a bright 
fire, 1 kindled in the canoe which was ^paddled by night 
over their feeding-grounds. Frightened, blinded, and 
at the same time attracted by the light, they leaped 
toward it, and in doing so frequently fell into the 
boat. This mode was particularly successful on the 
coast, and those who are familiar with the customs of 
that region will bear witness that to this day many 
mullets are caught in this manner by negroes carrying 
torches in their cypress canoes. 

Of the Indians inhabiting to the south of Florida, 
it is said : 2 " Besides their enjoyment of the water, 
the natives take abundance of mullet from it, bream 
and other fish that breed there, as well as kinds 
more numerous that ascend from the sea. They come 
over the bar, by the mouth, in the season proper to 
them for casting their spawn, remaining to sport in 
fresh water until about summer, when the river goes 
down. This is the principal fishing season. Then the 
people of the towns, bringing great bundles of bushes, 
gather about the holes and pools and beat the water, 
when the fishes in the depths becoming intoxicated 
from the sap, ascend to the surface and are taken. 
Persons receive no harm from the poison in eating 
them." This method of intoxicating fishes by pound- 

1 Loskiel says: "In Carolina the Indians frequently use fire in fishing. A 
certain kind of fish will even leap into the boats which .have fire in them." — 
(" History of the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., p. 95. London, 1794.) 

2 " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 181. New York, 1871. 



328 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



ed horse-chestnuts and various roots was extensively 
adopted by the Southern tribes. 1 

A favorite and manly mode of taking fish was with 
the bow and arrow, and with the dart or spear. This 
savored of sport, and afforded ample opportunity for the 
display of skill. «, Father Hennepin pays the follow- 
ing compliment to the dexterity of the Southern In- 
dians dwelling " upon the River Meschasipi." They 
" are very subtil and have such lively and piercing 
Eyes that tho' the Fishes glide very swiftly in the 
"Waters, yet they fail not to kill them with their Darts, 
which they vigorously thrust a little before into the 
Water when they shoot out of their Bow. Moreover, 
they have long Poles with sharp Points which they dart 
from them with great Accuracy, because of their being 
so sharp sighted; they also kill great Sturgeons and 
Trouts, which are seven or eight foot under Water." 2 

Bartram 3 gives an account of the capture of a 
salmon-trout weighing about fifteen pounds, by a 
young Indian. " The Indian," says he, " struck this 
fish with a reed harpoon, pointed very sharp, barbed 
and hardened by the fire. The fish lay close under the 
steep bank, which the Indian discovered and struck 
with his reed ; instantly the fish darted off with it, 
while the Indian pursued, without extracting the har- 
poon, and with repeated thrusts drowned it and then 
dragged it to shore." 

Lawson 4 declares that the hunters of the interior 
were very expert in striking sturgeon and rock-fish or 
bass when they came up the rivers to spawn ; and to 

1 See Adair's " History of the American Indians, 7 ' p. 403. London, 1775. 

2 " A Continuation of the New Discovery," etc., p. 102. London, 1698. 

3 " Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., p. 44. London, 
1792. 

4 " History of Carolina," p. 339. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 



VARIOUS METHODS OF CAPTURING FISH. 329 



Dr. Brickell 1 — the plagiarist — we are indebted for the 
ensuing mention of this particular manner of fishing 
as practised by the Carolina Indians : " They have 
Fish-gigs that are made of the Reeds or Hollow Canes ; 
these they cut and make very sharp, with two Beards, 
and taper at the Point like a Harpoon; being thus 
provided, they either wade into the Water, or go into 
their Canoes and paddle about the Edges of the Riv- 
ers or Creeks, striking all the Fish they meet with in 
the depth of five or six Feet Water, or as far as 
they can see them ; this they commonly do in dark, 
calm Nights, and whilst one attends with a Light made 
of the Pitch-pine, the other with his Fish-gig strikes 
and kills the Fish. It is diverting to see them fish 
after this manner, which they sometimes do in the 
Day ; how dexterous they are in striking, is admirable, 
and the great Quantities they kill by this Method." 

Lawson states that the " Indian boys go in the 
night, and one holding a lightwood torch, the other 
has a bow and arrows, and the fire directing him to see 
the fish, he shoots them with the arrows ; and thus 
they kill a great many of the smaller fry, and some- 
times, pretty large ones." 2 

In plate xiii. of the " Admiranda Narratio " six 
Virginia Indians are represented wading in the water 
and busily engaged in spearing fish. Three are dis- 
covered in plate iv., in successful pursuit of a school of 
fishes, while others in canoes are similarly occupied. 
Plate xxxvi. of the " Brevis Narratio " assures us that 
the Florida Indians were addicted to the same sport. 

In 1805 Barker observed the Chickasaws in Duck 
River, pursuing, in their canoes, the large fishes which 

1 "Natural History of North Carolina," etc., p. 365. Dublin, 

2 "History of Carolina," etc., p. 341. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 



330 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



swarmed in. that stream, and taking great numbers of 
them with spears made of the long canes which grew in 
the river-bottoms. These spears, says the narrator, 
" were sixteen or eighteen feet in length, sharpened 
with a knife into a lancet shape at one end, and thrown 
with great dexterity twenty or thirty feet ; seldom 
failing to pierce a fish through at every throw. This 
was doubtless an invention of great antiquity, and 
practised by their fathers ages before the use of iron 
was known amongst them." — (" American Pioneer," 
vol. i., p. 143. Cincinnati, 1844.) 

It was upon their wears, traps, set-nets, and me- 
chanical contrivances of these sorts, however, that the 
natives largely depended for a constant and liberal 
supply of fish. Their use, in some form or other, was 
general. Captain Kibault informs us that the Indians 
of May River put as presents into his boats " sundry 
fishes which with mervelous speed they run to take in 
their packs made in the water with great reeds, so well 
and cunningly set together after the fashion of a Laba- 
rynthe, or Maze, with so many turns and crooks as it is 
impossible to do it without much consideration and 
industry." 1 The Carolina Indians are said to have 
taken the sturgeon in snares such as are used in Europe 
for the capture of pike. " The herrings," according to 
Surveyor-General Lawson, " in March and April run 
a great way up the rivers and fresh streams to spawn, 
where the savages make great wares with hedges that 
hinder their passage, only in the middle where an arti- 
ficial pond is made to take them in so that they can- 
not return. This method is in use all over the fresh 

1 " The Whole and True Discovery e of Terra Florida, etc., etc., written in 
Frenche by Captain Ribaulde, the first that wholly discovered the same, and now 
newly set forth in the English, the xxx of May, 1563. Prynted at London by 
Rowland Hall for Thomas Hackett." 



FISH-TRAPS OR WEARS. 



331 



streams to catch trout and the other species of fish 
which those parts afford." 1 

Dr. Brickell 2 is rather more definite in his descrip- 
tion, and advises us that these wears were constructed 
of " long poles or hollow canes." 3 

In plate xiii. of the " Admiranda Narratio," we find 
a distinct representation of one of these fish-traps, with 
extended wings ; one of which reaches the shore, and 
the other far out into the water. It is made of canes 
or small poles firmly stuck in the mud, so as to pre- 
serve an upright position. Placed close to each other, 
and rising a few feet above the water-level, they are 
securely fastened together by parallel ropes or withes, 
thus forming a sort of hedge or rustic fence through 
which the fishes are unable to force a passage. In the 
middle is an opening leading into a circular enclosure. 
This, by a circuitous opening, communicates with a 
second pen, and this in like manner with a third, and 
that, in turn, in a similar way with a fourth — each 
somewhat smaller than the former. 4 Two Indians are 
seen in a canoe at the opening of the wear. The one 
in the bow with a scoop-net is dipping up the fish in 
the first pen, while numerous other fishes are figured 
making their way into the other enclosures, whence, 
for them, there can be little or no hope of escape. The 
explanatory text is as follows : " Egregiam etia habent 
piscandi in fiuminibus ration em : cum enim ferro & 
chalybe careant, arundinibus aut oblongis virgis piscis 
cuiusdam cancro marino similis caudam concauam pro 

1 " History of Carolina," etc., p. 339. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 

2 "Natural History of North Carolina," etc., p. 366. Dublin, 

3 " Cabeca de Vaca mentions wears made of cane." Translation of Bucking- 
ham Smith, p. *75. New York, 1871. 

4 Here we have an explanation of what Captain Ribault calls " a Labaryuthe 
or Maze with so many turns and crooks." 



332 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

cuspide iinponunt, quibus noctu vel interdiu pisces 
figunt, & in suas cymbas congerunt : seel aliorum pis- 
ciuni spinis & spiculis uti nomnt. Baculis etiam seu 
virgultis in aquam defixis tegetes conficiunt, quas inter- 
texentes in angustum semper contrahunt, ut ex figura 
apparet, nunquam apnd nos conspecta est tarn snbtilis 
pisces capiendi ratio, quorum varia genera istic in flumi- 
nibus reperiuntur, nostris dis similia & boni admodum 
succi." 

By some of the illustrations accompanying the 
" Brevis Narratio," 1 we are persuaded that similar 
wears were constructed by the Florida Indians. 

Loskiel 2 describes a particular mode of fishing 
which was probably adopted in some of the Georgia 
rivers : " When the shad fish (clupea alosa) come up 
the rivers, the Indians run a dam of stones across the 
stream, where its depth will admit of it, not in a 
straight line, but in two parts verging towards each 
other in an angle. An opening is left in the middle 
for the water to run off. At this opening they place 
a large box, the bottom of which is full of holes. They 
then make a rope of the twigs of the wild vine, reach- 
ing across the stream, upon which boughs of about six 
feet in length are fastened at the distance of about two 
fathoms from each other. A party is detached about 
a mile above the dam with this rope and its append- 
ages, who begin to move gently down the current, some 
guiding one, some the opposite end, whilst others keep 
the branches from sinking by supporting the rope in 
the middle with wooden forks. Thus they proceed, 
frightening the fishes into the opening left in the mid- 
dle of the dam, where a number of Indians are placed 



1 Plate iii. 

2 "History of the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., p. 95. London, 1794. 



ADALr's ACCOUNT OF INDIAN FISHING. 



on each side, who, standing upon the two legs of the 
angles, drive the fishes with poles, and an hideous noise, 
through the opening into the above-mentioned box or 
chest. Here they lie, the water running off through 
the holes in the bottom, and other Indians stationed 
on each side of the chest, take them out, kill them and 
fill their canoes. By this contrivance they sometimes 
catch above a thousand shad and other fish in half a 
day." 

Mr. Adair's summary 1 of the various methods 
adopted by the Southern Indians, and particularly the 
Georgia tribes, in their practice of the piscatorial art, is 
so interesting, minute, and appropriate, that we make 
no apology for repeating it in extenso : 

"Their method of fishing may be placed among 
their diversions, but this is of the profitable kind. 
When they see large fish near the surface of the water, 
they fire directly upon them, sometimes only with pow- 
der, which noise and surprize, however, so stupifies 
them that they instantly turn up their bellies and float 
atop, when the fisherman secures them. If they shoot 
at fish not deep in the water, either with an arrow or 
bullet, they aim at the lower part of the belly, if they 
are near ; and lower, in like manner, according to the 
distance, which seldom fails of killing. In a dry sum- 
mer season, they gather horse-chesnuts and different 
sorts of roots, which, having pounded pretty fine, and 
steeped a while in a trough, they scatter this mixture 
over the surface of a middle-sized pond, and stir it 
about with poles, till the water is sufficiently impreg- 
nated with the intoxicating bittern. The fish are 
soon inebriated and make to the surface of the water, 
with their bellies uppermost. The fishers gather them 



1 " History of the American Indians," pp. 402-405. 



London, 1765. 



334 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

in baskets, and barbicue the largest, covering them 
carefully over at night to preserve them from the sup- 
posed putrifying influence of the moon. It seems that 
fish catched in this manner are not poisoned, but only 
stupified ; for they prove very wholesome food to us, 
who frequently use them. By experiments, when they 
are speedily moved into good water, they revive in a 
few minutes. 

" The Indians have the art of catching fish in lono; 
crails, made with canes and hiccory splinters, tapering 
to a point. They lay these at a fall of water, where 
stones are placed in two sloping lines from each bank, 
till they meet together in the middle of the rapid 
stream, where the entangled fish are soon drowned. 
Above such a place I have known them to fasten a 
wreath of long grape-vines together to reach across the 
river, with stones fastened at proper distances to rake 
the bottom : they will swim a mile with it whooping 
and plunging all the way, driving the fish before them 
into their large cane pots. 1 With this draught, which 
is a very heavy one, they make a town feast, or feast of 
love, of which every one partakes in the most social 
manner, and afterward they dance together, singing 
Halelu-yah, and the rest of their usual praises to the 
divine essence, for his bountiful gifts to the beloved 
people. Those Indians who are unacquainted with 
the use of barbed irons, are very expert in striking 
large fish out of their canoes, with long sharp-pointed 
green canes, which are well bearded, and hardened in 
the fire. In Savannah River I have often accompanied 
them in killing sturgeons with those green swamp 
harpoons, and which they did with much pleasure and 
ease ; for when we discovered the fish, we soon thrust 



1 See also " Memoirs of Lieutenant Tiniberlake," p. 43. London, 1*765. 



adaie's ACCOUNT OF INDIAN FISHING. 335 

into their bodies one of the harpoons. As the fish 
would immediately strike deep, and rush away to the 
bottom very rapidly, their strength was soon expended 
by their violent struggles against the buoyant force of 
the green darts : as soon as the top end of them ap- 
peared again on the surface of the water, we made up 
to them, renewed the attack, and in like manner con- 
tinued it till we secured our game. 

" They have a surprising method of fishing under 
the edges of rocks that stand over deep places of the 
river. There, they pull off their red breeches, or their 
long slip of Stroud cloth, and wrapping it round their 
4 arm, so as to reach to the lower part of the palm of their 
right hand, they dive under the rock where the large 
cat-fish lie to shelter themselves from the scorching 
beams of the sun, and to watch for prey : as soon as 
those fierce aquatic animals see that tempting bait, 
they immediately seize it with the greatest violence in 
order to swallow it. Then is the time for the diver to 
improve the favorable opportunity : he accordingly 
opens his hand, seizes the voracious fish by his tender 
parts, hath a sharp struggle with it against the crevices 
of the rock, and at last brings it safe ashore. Except 
the Choktah, all our Indians, both male and female, 
above the state of infancy, are in the watery element 
nearly equal to amjDhibious animals, by practice : and 
from the experiments necessity has forced them to, it 
seems as if few were endued with such strong natural 
abilities — very few can equal them in their wild situa- 
tion of life. 

" There is a favorite method among them of fishing 
with hand-nets. The nets are about three feet deep, 
and of the same diameter at the opening, made of 
hemp, and knotted after the usual manner of our nets. 



336 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



On each side of the mouth they tie very securely a 
strong elastic green cane, to which the ends are fast- 
ened. Prepared with these, the warriors abreast jump 
in at the end of a long pond, swimming under water, 
with their net stretched open with both hands, and 
the canes in a horizontal position. In this manner 
they will continue either till their breath is expended 
by the want of respiration, or till the net is so ponder- 
ous as to force them to exonerate it ashore, or in a 
basket fixt in a proper place for that purpose — by 
removing one hand the canes instantly spring together. 
I have been engaged half a day at a time with the old 
friendly Chikkasah, and half drowned in the diversion 
— when any of us was so unfortunate as to catch water- 
snakes in our sweep, and emptied them ashore, we had 
the ranting voice of our friendly posse comitatus, whoop- 
ing against us till another party was so unlucky as 
to meet with the like misfortune. During this exercise 
the women are fishing ashore with coarse baskets, to 
catch the fish that escape our nets. At the end of our 
friendly diversion, we cheerfully return home, and in 
an innocent and friendly manner eat together, studious- 
ly diverting each other on the incidents of the day, and 
make a cheerful night." 

It appears that the Southern Indians were fond of 
crawfish as an article of food. Selecting a stream fre- 
quented by such fishes, they angled for them in the 
following manner : Slips of half-roasted or barbecued 
venison were strung, about six inches apart, upon reeds 
sharpened at one end. Thus baited, a great many of 
these reeds were stuck in the bed of the brook. Re- 
maining near, the Indians watched these baited reeds, 
pulling them up at intervals, shaking into baskets 
the crawfish adhering to the bits of meat, and then re- 



NET-SINKERS AND FISHING— PLUMMETS. 337 



placing them in the water. " By this method," says 
Lawson, " they will in a little time catch several bush- 
els." Blackmoor's teeth were taken in great quantities 
by means of oysters tied to strings. The coast Indians, 
carrying them into the interior, traded them away to 
remote tribes by whom they were held in much esteem. 1 

In addition to the modes already enumerated, it 
may be safely asserted that nets were also used by the 
natives for the capture of fish. Of their peculiar shaj^e 
and construction we have no specific account. Bemem- 
bering, however, the ingenuity displayed by these peo- 
ples in the fabrication of garments from the fibres of 
trees, mats from rushes, and ornamental coverings from 
feathers, it would be singular if in the silk-grass, the 
inner bark of the mulberry, and other natural sub- 
stances of this region, they had not found convenient 
materials for the manufacture of substantial nets and 
lines. Their former existence is indicated by the pres- 
ence of sinkers and fishing-plummets. 

Of the sinkers, there are two varieties — perforated, 
and notched or grooved. Begarding them as a whole,- 
we may state that they were usually made of soap- 
stone, sometimes of slate, rarely of flint or hard stone, 
and occasionally of clay. All of the perforated sort 
that I have seen, with one exception, were formed 
either of soap-stone or of clay. Consisting generally 
of fiat or rounded pieces of soapstone irregular in 
shape, they vary in weight from scarcely more than an 
ounce to a pound and upward. The perforations are 
from a quarter of an inch to an inch in diameter, and 
are indifferently located either in the centre or near 
the edge of the stone. Of this variety, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 

1 See " Lawson's History of Carolina," p. 340. Raleigh reprint, 1S60. Brick- 
ell's "Natural History of North Carolina," p. 3C7. Dublin, 1737. 

22 



338 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



4, and 5, Plate XIX., may "be taken as typical speci- 
mens. In this connection we would refer to an object 
(Fig! 6, Plate XIX.) of soap-stone, well worked in every 
part, which was found in a relic-bed on Price's Island, 
in the Savannah River, opposite Columbia County, 
and associated with several perforated net-sinkers of 
similar material. It is eight inches and a half in 
length, six inches and a half broad at the widest part, 
and about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. The 
perforation is three-quarters of an inch in diameter. 
It is suggested that this article should be classed with 
net-sinkers. Little labor was bestowed upon the manu- 
facture of the notched sinkers (Figs. 7, 8, and 11, Plate 
XIX.), the only object being to rudely break or chip 
the material into convenient size, and then notch it at 
the opposite sides or ends so that it could be securely 
attached by means of a vine, a strap of deer-skin, or a 
thong of some kind. Such plummets are, as a rule, 
bulky, and were probably nsed to weigh down the 
long grape-vine ropes 1 with which the Indians were 
wont to drag the rivers in driving the fishes before 
them into their large cane traps. The noise of these 
stones roiling along the bottom would have materially 
assisted in frightening the fishes from their hiding- 
places and in compelling them to swim toward the de- 
sired point. 

Other fishing-plummets 2 (Fig. 10, Plate XIX.) have 
a single, groove around the middle, while others still 
(Fig. 9, Plate XIX.) have two or more grooves inter- 

1 See Adair's " History of the American Indians," p. 403. London, 1775. 

2 Prof. Rau has in his collection net-sinkers, notched and grooved, found near 
Muncy, on the banks of the Susquehanna River. I have seen similar ones from 
the shores of Rhode Island. These types are also represented in the islets and 
reefs of the west coast of Sweden (Nilsson's " Stone Age," p. 26, plate ii., Figs. 32, 
34, 35, London, 1868), and in other localities in Europe. 



riateXDL. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CC. N. Yj OSBOR\ES PROCESS 



NET-SINKERS. NETS, 



339 



sect'mg each other at right angles. These grooves are 
carelessly cut or pecked, and are intended to facilitate 
the attachment. Fig. 12, Plate XIX., illustrates a more 
carefully-wrought kind of plummet, which may have 
been employed to weight the hand-line in fishing with 
a hook. 

These sinkers abound along the banks of the Savan- 
nah Eiver above Augusta, and are found upon the 
bluffs of other streams where the Indians habitually 
congregated for the purpose of fishing. Near the con- 
fluence of Great Kiokee Creek and the Savannah River 
an extended kitchen-refus8-pile was cut in two and laid 
bare, some years since, by a heavy freshet. Hundreds 
of these perforated and notched sinkers were there 
unearthed, showing the great quantities manufactured 
and used by the natives at this point. 

In his account of the fish-preserve near the village 
of the Cacique of Pacaha, the Gentleman of Elvas inti- 
mates that cast-nets 1 were there made and used by the 
natives. Cabeca de Vaca, on more than one occasion, 
alludes to the existence of nets, and it may be that the 
smaller kinds both of the perforated, and grooved or 
notched plummets, served as net-sinkers. It is not 
improbable that the Southern Indians manufactured 
and fished with set or gill nets, which would have 
proved very effective in the capture of shad. In that 
event these large plummets would have answered, well 
as weights to keep the nets in proper position. In 
plate xiii. of the " Admirancla Narratio " two forms of 
nets are figured ; one, the ordinary dip or scoop net, 
and the other, conical-shaped, its apex terminating in a 
long handle. The latter was made of cane or split 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto, 1 ' translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 112. New York, 1866. 



340 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



wood — the longitudinal ribs, after leaving the handle, 
expanding at the bottom, where they were kept in 
place by means of circular and parallel cords or hoops 
of cane, thereby forming a stiff enclosure, open beneath, 
which could be thrust over a fish or crab in shallow 
water. Thus detained, the animal could not escape, 
and was subject to immediate manucaption. Nowhere, 
so far as our personal information goes, have either 
cast-nets or trolling-nets been particularly mentioned 
or described by the early narrators. In the present 
state of the inquiry, it does not become us, however, to 
say that such nets were not in use among the Southern 
Indians. The probability is that they did have some 
such contrivances. We would suggest, nevertheless, 
that the principal office of the plummets and sinkers 
we have been examining was either to assist in steady- 
ing and anchoring the traps, or to act as weights for 
set-nets ; or, what is most likely, to carry to the bot- 
tom the long grape-vine ropes with which the natives 
dragged the streams when they wished to rout the 
fishes from their lurking-places and drive them into 
their cane labyrinths or wears. . 

Many of these sinkers consist simply of water-worn 
pebbles or irregular fragments of rock rudely notched 
around the centre, and sometimes longitudinally also. 
Little labor was expended save in the selection of 
stones of proper sizes, and in pecking such grooves as 
would permit secure attachment to the upright poles 
of the wears, the ends of fishing-lines, and to the short 
grape-vines depending from the stout mother- vine, with 
which the aborigines were wont to drag the rivers. 
Some of the heavier and rougher sort may properly be 
denominated anchors for wears and stationary nets, or 
fish-traps. 



CHAPTER XV. 



Discoidal Stones. — Chungke Game. 

In" his most interesting and valuable historical 
sketch of Germany, Tacitus 1 mentions the fact that the 
ancient Germans were so passionately addicted to a 
game of chance that, when all their property had been 
gambled away, the desperate players would hazard 
upon a final throw even their personal liberty. 

With almost equal desperation, if we may credit 
Adair, did the Cherokees pursue their national game 
of Chungke. After describing their ball-playing, he 
states : " The warriors have another favorite game 
called Chunghe, which, with propriety of language, 
may be called ' Running hard labour.' They have near 
their state-house a square piece of ground well cleaned, 
and fine sand is carefully strewed over it, when requi- 
site, to promote a swifter motion to what they throw 
along the surface. Only one or two on a side play at 
this ancient game. They have a stone about two 
fingers broad at the edge, and two spans round ; each 
party has a pole of about eight feet long, smooth, and 
tapering at each end, the points flat. They set off 

1 " C. Cornelii Taciti Opera omnia, ad fidem editionis Orellianae," torn, ii., p. 
243. Oxonii, 1851. 



342 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

abreast of eacli other at six yards from the end of the 
play-ground ; then one of them hurls the stone on its 
edge, in as direct a line as he can, a considerable dis- 
tance toward the middle of the other end of the square : 
when they have ran a few yards, each darts his pole 
anointed with bear's oil, with a proper force, as near as 
he can guess in proportion to the motion of the stone, 
that the end may lie close to the stone : when this is 
the case, the person counts two of the game, and, in 
proportion to the nearness of the poles to the mark, 
one is counted, unless by measuring, both are found to 
be at an equal distance from the stone. In this manner 
the players will keep running most part of the day, at 
half speed, under the violent heat of the sun, staking 
their silver ornaments, their nose-, finger-, and ear-rings ; 
their breast-, arm-, and wrist-plates, and even all their 
wearing-apparel, except that which barely covers their 
middle. All the American Indians are much addicted 
to this game, which to us, appears to be a task of stu- 
pid drudgery : it seems, however, to be of early origin 
when their forefathers used diversions as simple as their 
manners. The hurling-stones they use at present were, 
time immemorial, rubbed smooth on the rocks, and 
with prodigious labour ; they are kept with the strictest 
religious care from one generation to another, and are 
exempted from being buried with the dead. They 
belong to the town where they are used, and are care- 
fully preserved.' 7 1 Physical traces exist to this day, 
in various portions of Georgia, denoting the carefully- 
prepared spaces or areas dedicated in the olden time 
to the uses of this game. These are parallelogrammic in 
shape, slightly elevated, and are from sixty to ninety 
feet in length, and about half as wide. When Adair 



1 " History of the American Indians," etc., p. 401, el seq. London, 1115. 



DISCOIDAL STONES. 



313 



says that these "hurling-s tones " were kept with the 
ntmost religious care, from one generation to another, 
and were exempt from inhumation with the dead, he 
states a fact which was the result of his extended per- 
sonal observation. His assertion, however, is not en- 
tirely correct. One of the finest discoidal stones the 
writer has ever seen, was taken from a mound in Cass 
County, near the Etowah River, about thirty feet below 
.the upper surface of the tumulus. A similar relic lay 
touching it. They had both been placed on edge, and 
at right angles to each other. Above them was a 
layer of human bones in a decomposed state. From a 
small sepulchral mound on Pope's plantation, in the 
Oostenaula Valley, we obtained a discoidal stone of 
ferruginous quartz, almost the counterpart of those 
just alluded to. A little more than a year ago, a 
freshet in the Oconee River carried away a portion of 
a mound which stood upon its bank, not far from 
Athens, and in doing so washed out a discoidal stone 
of quartz, hollowed out on both sides to the depth of 
an inch, live inches in diameter, carefully polished and 
perfect in every particular. These may be exceptional 
cases, but they are worthy of note. In view of the 
special esteem in which such articles must have been 
held, remembering the protracted labor involved in 
their manufacture, and mindful of the universal fond- 
ness cherished by the natives for the game in which 
they were thrown, we can readily believe that these 
discoidal stones were carefully preserved, and, because 
of their great value, excused from sepulture with the 
general dead. If it be true, as some have asserted, 
that they were regarded as the common property of a 
town or community, we have in this circumstance ad- 
ditional reason for supposing that they should have 



344 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

escaped interment, except, perhaps, with some distin- 
guished person or noted player of the game. 

While enumerating the principal sports of the In- 
dians of Georgia and Florida, Captain Bernard Ro- 
mans 1 makes the following sjjeciflc mention of the 
unique and absorbing game whose peculiarities are 
engaging our present attention : " Their favorite game 
of cliunke is a plain proof of the evil consequences of a 
violent jjassion for gaming upon all kinds, classes and 
orders of men; at this they play from morning till 
night with an unwearied application, and they bet 
high : here you may see a savage come and bring all 
his skins, stake them and lose them ; next his pipe, his 
beads, trinkets, and ornaments ; at last, his blanket and 
other garment, and even all their arms; and, after all 
it is not uncommon for them to go home, borrow a gun 
and shoot themselves. . . . The manner of playing this 
game is thus : They make an alley of about two hun- 
dred feet in length, where a very smooth caly ground 
is laid, which when dry is very hard ; they play two 
together, having each a streight pole of about fifteen 
feet long ; one holds a stone, which is in shape of a 
truck, which he throws before him over this alley, and 
the instant of its departure they set off and run ; in 
running they cast their poles after the stone ; he that 
did not throw it endeavors to hit it, the other strives 
to strike the pole of his antagonist in its flight so as 
to prevent its hitting the stone; if the first should 
strike the stone, he counts one for it, and if the other 
by the dexterity of his cast should prevent the pole 
of his opponent hitting the stone, he counts one, but 
should both miss their aim, the throw is renewed: 

1 " A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., pp. 79, 80. 
New York, 1116. 



THE CHUNGKE GAME. 



345 



and in case a score is won, the winner casts the stone 
and eleven is up ; they hurl this stone and pole with 
wonderful dexterity and violence, and fatigue them- 
selves much at it." 

In describing the chunk-yards in vogue among the 
Creeks, Bartram expresses the opinion that they were 
of very ancient date, and not the work of the modern 
Indians. It has been supposed, and apparently with 
very good reason, that these areas were chiefly devoted 
to the practice of this favorite game ; 'and that instead 
of calling them cliunfoyards, we ought properly to 
denominate them chunghe-yards. 1 

According to Du Pratz, 2 the method adopted by 
the Louisiana Indians in playing this game differed 
somewhat from that prescribed among the Indians of 
Georgia and Florida. " The warriors practice a diver- 
sion which is called the game of the pole, at which only 
two play together at a time. Each has a pole about 
eight feet long, resembling a Roman f, and the game 
consists in rolling a flat round stone, about three inches 
diameter, and an inch thick, with the edge somewhat 
sloping, and throwing the pole at the same time in 
such a manner that when the stone rests the pole may 
touch it or be near it. Both antagonists throw their 
poles at the same time, and he whose pole is nearest the 
stone counts one, and has the right of rolling the stone. 
The men fatigue themselves much at this game as they 
run after their poles at every throw ; and, some of them 
are so bewitched by it that they game away one piece 
of furniture after another. These gamesters, however? 

1 See Squier's " Antiquities of the State of New York," p. 234. Buffalo, 1851. 
" Transactions American Ethnological Society," vol. iii., part 1, p. 34, et seq. 

2 " History of Louisiana," etc., p. 366. London, 1774. 



346 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



are very rare and are greatly discountenanced by the 
rest of the people." 

It would appear, from Lieutenant Timbeiiake's 
observations, that this game was also called, among 
some of the Cherokee tribes, nettecawaio, of which he 
gives us the following description : 1 " Each player 
having a pole about ten feet long, with several marks 
or divisions, one of them bowls a round stone, with 
one flat side, and the other convex, on which the play- 
ers all dart their* poles after it, and the nearest counts 
according to the vicinity of the bowl to the marks on 
his pole." 

The Carolina Indians, as we are informed by Sur- 
veyor-General John Lawson, 2 were much addicted to a 
sport they called Chenco, " which is carried on with a 
staff and a bowl made of stone which they trundle 
upon a smooth place like a bowling green, made for 
that purpose." The presence of these discoidal stones 
in Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Ken- 
tucky, Virginia, and elsewhere, assures us that this 
game of cliunglce was generally practised by all the 
Southern tribes. In his " Natural and Aboriginal His- 
tory of Tennessee," Mr. Haywood describes several 
stones of this sort, and also declares that they have 
been found in mounds. Upon page 190 we read: "In 
the possession of General Cocke, of Grainger County, 
and in the town of Eutledge, is a circular stone found 
in the woods there, of three inches in diameter, resem- 
bling in colour dark yellow barber's soap. In the 
centre, on each side, is a small circular excavation 
about one inch in diameter or a little more, scooped 
out as far as to its circumference, extending not quite 

1 " Memoirs," etc., p. 77. London, 1765. 

2 " History of Carolina," p. 98. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 



DISCOIDAL STONES. 



347 



half way from the centre to the circumference of the 
stone itself. On both sides there is a declivity from 
the centre to the edge, making the extremity not more 
than half as thick as the stone is at the centre. It is 
very smoothly cut. . . . 

"In the museum of a lady at Nashville is one of a 
similar shape ; it is made of stone, very white like 
snow, transparent and glittering, very hard and heavy. 
It is about three inches in diameter, or perhaps a little 
less ; the excavation in the centre, on each side seems 
adapted to the thumb and finger, and at the extremity 
it is wider in proportion than the one before described. 
And, lately was taken from a mound in Maury Coun- 
ty, a stone perfectly globular, very hard and heavy, of 
a variegated exterior and exceedingly well polished. 
It probably belonged to some employment that the 
other circular stones did." Again, at page 196, our 
historian continues : " About ten miles from Sparta, in 
White County, a conical mound was lately opened, 
and in the centre of it was found a skeleton ei^ht feet 
in length. With it was found a stone of the flint kind, 
very hard, with two flat sides, having in the centre cir- 
cular hollows exactly accommodated to the balls of the 
thumb and forefinger. This stone was an inch and a 
half in diameter — the form exactly circular. It was 
about one-third of an inch thick and made smooth 
and flat for rolling, like a grindstone, to the form of 
which, indeed, the whole stone was assimilated. When 
placed upon the floor it would roll for a considerable 
time without falling. The whole surface was smooth 
and well polished. . . . ~No doubt it was buried with 
the deceased, because for some reason he had set a 
great value on it in his lifetime, and had excelled in 
some accomplishment to which it related. The colour 



348 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

of the stone was a dingy white, inclining to a darkish 
yellow." 1 

Without multiplying these historical proofs of the 
presence and use of these discoidal stones among the 
Southern Indians, even within historic times, we pro- 
ceed to consider briefly the peculiar forms of such as 
have been found within the present geograj)hical limits 
of Georgia, It may be stated generally that they are 
all circular in shape, with diameters varying from one 
to six inches. In thickness they differ from a quarter 
of an inch to two inches and a quarter. Many are flat 
on the sides, which, as they approach the circumference, 
become slightly convex. Perpendicular at the edge, 
they are capable of standing on edge and of maintain- 
ing this upright position, with great tenacity, when 
rolled along the ground. Others are lenticular in 
shape, with oblique margins. For the manufacture of 
specimens of this solid type — which we presume was 
the common form — a hard, black, close-grained stone, 
capable of receiving a fine polish, formed the favorite 
material, especially along the coast. So nearly in out- 
line do these frequently resemble the old-fashioned 
iron weights in use in country stores, that these relics 
are often spoken of, among the unlearned, as Indian 
weights. {See Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 13, Plate XX.) 
It is probable that the smaller varieties were made for 
children, who, at an early age, were taught to imitate 
this favorite amusement of their elders. This impres- 
sion is strengthened by the fact that numerous disks 
of pottery with the ornamentation of the vessel still 
upon them, are found upon the sites of old villages 
and at localities along the river-banks where the 
natives congregated from year to year to fish. It is 

1 "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," pp. 190, 196. Nashville, 1823. 



F/ttteXX. . 




AM. PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC Ca NY. \ OSBORNES PROCESS 



DISCOID AL STONES. 349 

difficult to conjecture what uses these smaller discoidal 
stones and clay disks were designed to subserve except 
the training of the little ones in the arts and rules of 
this ancient and universally-esteemed game. Beauti- 
ful varieties of pudding-stone (Fig. 12, Plate XX.), 
greenstone (Fig. 13, Plate XX.), talcose slate, soap- 
stone, flint, and even agate (Fig. 7, Plate XX.), were 
employed in the manufacture of discoidal stones of the 
solid type. The regularity of outline and the degree 
of polish are remarkable. 

The first modification of this customary shape is 
seen in those discoidal stones whose sides are slightly 
concave or convex. In some instances one side appears 
convex, and the other concave. (Figs. 9 and 10, Plate 
XX.) We turn now to the more elaborate forms of 
these discoidal stones, three of which are represented in 
the accompanying plate. They are all made of ferru- 
ginous quartz, and are well polished. The first speci- 
men (Fig. 6, Plate XX.) is evenly hollowed out on 
both sides to the depth of an inch and a quarter in the 
centre. The cavities are circular, and four inches in 
diameter. From the edge of each cavity toward the 
outer circumference, the stone is bevelled, so that the 
edge of the disk is just an inch in width. This dis- 
coidal stone is five inches and three-quarters in diam- 
eter, and two inches and a half in thickness at the point 
where the cavities begin. 

The second (Fig. 3, Plate XX.), which was taken 
from a mound in Bullock County, is somewhat larger 
than the first, being exactly six inches in diameter, and 
a little more than two inches and a quarter thick. It 
has four cavities, two on each side, precisely similar, 
and one within the other. The diameters of the lamer 
cavities are each four inches and a half ; of the smaller, 



» 



330 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



two inches and a quarter. The depth of the outer 
cavities is five-eighths of an inch ; of the inner, three- 
eighths of an inch. As in the first specimen, the sides 
are here also bevelled toward the edge, which is rather 
more than three quarters of an inch in width. Between 
the outer circle of the concavity and the point where 
the Levelling commences, occurs a rim a quarter of an 
inch in thickness. The third specimen (Fig. 8, Plate 
XX.), which may justly be regarded as a wonderful 
illustration of the skill and protracted labor of the 
primitive artist working without rule or compass and 
unaided by a single metallic tool, was found, as we 
have already stated, at the bottom of a large sepulchral 
mound, thirty feet high, in Cass County. It is abso- 
lutely symmetrical in all its parts, being five inches 
and three-quarters in diameter, and one inch and seven- 
eighths in thickness. The cavities — which are precise- 
ly similar on both sides — are three inches and a half 
in diameter, and three-quarters of an inch deep. In 
the centre of these cavities is a slight depression an 
inch in diameter. The edge is slightly convex, and 
about an inch wide. The distance from the outer cir- 
cle of the concavity to the point where the bevelling 
ceases toward the circumference, is a little more than 
an inch. The entire stone is beautifully polished. 
The regularity with which these relics are fashioned, 
challenges our admiration. Upon some of them, the 
workman of the present day, with all his modern im- 
plements and mechanical skill, could not improve. 
Adair tells us that these hurling-stones were, from 
"time immemorial rubbed smooth on the rocks, and 
with prodigious labour," 1 and Lafitau says that a North 
American Indian sometimes spent his life in making a 

1 "History of the American Indians," etc., p. 402. London, 1775. 



DISCOIDAL STONES. 



351 



stone tomahawk, and that without finishing it. 1 Fes- 
tination proceeds from the devil, is an aphorism with 
which the Indians offered quarrel neither in theory 
nor in practice. With them, time was of no conse- 
quence. It entered not as an element into their daily 
calculations. Consecutive labor formed no part of 
their ordinary occupations. Consequently, the matter 
on hand was readily postponed in favor of sleep, 
amusement, or mere idleness. We may well believe, 
therefore, that these discoidal stones, so carefully 
formed of such hard material as quartz and even 
agate, and fashioned into their present symmetrical 
shapes simply by means of attrition with other stones, 
and perhaps, in some measure, through the agency of 
large wooden drills assisted by sharp sand and water, 
should, in their construction, have occupied weeks, 
months, and even years of tedious, although desultory 
labor. 

The general distribution of these stones shows that 
the game, for which they were manufactured, was in 
common esteem among the various Georgia tribes. 
Most of them are imperforate, although some have 
come under the writer's observation which are so thor- 
oughly perforated that they are little more than rings 
of stone. In a few instances, the discoidal stones with 
marked cavities seem to have been put to a secondary 
use, and treated as mortars in which hard substances 
were triturated. For pulverizing clay, and perhaps 
some mineral substances serviceable for paint, they 
would have answered well. If our conjecture as to 
the primary use of these stones be correct, it will 
readily be perceived that in bowling them the outer 
edge only would come in contact with the surface of 



1 " Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquams," tome ii., p. 110. Paris, 1724. 



352 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

the ground. The constant pressure of the thumb 
against the centre on one side, and of the fingers 
against the middle of the other side (the forefinger 
adapting itself to the curve of the periphery), would 
have exerted a decided tendency to keep the interior 
of the cavities smooth. 

"When, therefore, we perceive in the bottoms of 
these saucer-shaped cavities unmistakable traces of 
abrasion, we are persuaded that such discoid al stones 
have been diverted from the use they were orginally 
designed to subserve. Such instances are, however, 
rare ; and, in all likelihood, afford evidence not only of 
desuetude, but also of perversion, at the hands of mod- 
ern Indians. Occasionally we have observed a solid 
or lenticular-shaped stone which gave indications of its 
having been employed at some later period as a grind- 
ing or mealing stone. 

Although it has been suggested that a similar 
game was practised among the ancient inhabitants of 
Cornwall, and perhaps at Eldau-Steinberg and Ebers- 
berg, 1 this Chungke game, by what name soever called 
and however variant the rules which governed its de- 
tails, was essentially an American amusement, com- 
manding almost universal favor at the hands of the 
North American tribes. 

In the plains and upon the mountains of Chili may 
be seen numbers of fiat circular stones, five or six inches 
in diameter, made either of granite or porphyry, and 
with a hole drilled through their middle. While Mo- 
lina supposes them to have been the clubs or maces of 
the ancient Chilians, it is not impossible that some of 
them may have been used as gaming-stones. 2 We have 

1 Keller's " Lake Dwellings,-' etc., pp. 135, 136. London, 1866. Plates xxxviii. 
and lxxxix. 

2 Stevens' "Flint Chips," p. 505. London, 1870. 



DISCOIDAL STONES. 



853 



seen how generally distributed these relics are through 
the Southern States. Several varieties, obtained by 
the Rev. Dr. George Howe just after a freshet in the 
Congaree River, which, overflowing its banks, laid 
bare an ancient Indian burial-ground not far from the 
city of Columbia, in the State of South Carolina, are 
represented in the plate which faces page 178 of the 
sixth volume of Schoolcraft's " Archives of Aborigi- 
nal Knowledge." 1 Mr. Schoolcraft 2 states that " the 
numerous discoidal stones that are found in the tumuli 
and at the sites of ancient occupancy in the Mississippi 
Valley, serve to denote that this amusement was prac- 
tised among the earlier tribes of that valley at the 
mound period. These antique quoits are made with 
great labor and skill from very hard and heavy pieces 
of stone. They are generally exact disks, of a concave 
surface, with an orifice in the centre, and a broad rim." 
He expresses the opinion that the object of hurling 
these perforated specimens was " manifestly to cover 
an upright pin or peg driven into the ground." This, 
with all due respect, we question. The weight of 
authority inclines us to the belief that these stones 
were rolled, not pitched. 

Messrs. Squier and Davis found these disks in the 
mounds of the West ; and, in their " Ancient Monu- 
ments of the Mississippi Valley," have made us familiar 
with their characteristic types. 3 They are related, say 
they, to a very numerous class of relics scattered over 
the surface from the valley of the Ohio to Peru, com- 
posed of granite, porphyry, greenstone, jasper, quartz, 

1 Philadelphia, 1860. 

2 " Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge," etc., vol. i., p. 87, plate 23. Philadel- 
phia, 1860. 

3 " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," vol. L, p. 221, el seq., Fig. 121. 
Washington, 1848. 

23 



351 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

etc. Although the opinion of these gentlemen is enti- 
tled to the highest consideration, in the light of subse- 
quent investigations we feel constrained to differ from 
them when they advance the idea that discoidal stones 
are " of comparatively modern origin." They are old, 
very ancient, if we understand the record of the mounds 
in which they have been found, and rightly interpret 
the antiquity of the relics with which some of them 
are associated. The game, of which they are the 
symbols — conceived in a distant past and maintained 
through the intermediate centuries — was still popular 
within historic times. To the accounts already given, 
it may prove interesting to add a few other notices : 

" The Rev. J. B. Finley (distinguished for his zealous 
efforts in Christianizing the Indian tribes of Ohio)," 
say Messrs. Squier and Davis, 1 " states that among the 
tribes with which he was acquainted, stones identical 
with those above described, were much used in a popu- 
lar game resembling the modern game of 'ten pins.' 
The form of the stones suggests the manner in which 
they were held and thrown, or rather rolled. The 
concave sides received the thumb and second finger, 
the forefinger clasping the periphery." 

Mr. Breckenridge 2 mentions a game popular among 
the Riccarees which was played with a ring of stone ; 
and Lewis and Clarke assert that a similar amusement 
was indulged in by the Mandans. The javelin-game 
among the Pawnees was probably but a modification 
of this ancient sport. 3 

To the Abbe Em Domenech 4 we are indebted for 

1 " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," vol. i., p. 223, note. 

2 " Views of Louisiana," p. 256, quoted by Squier and Davis. 

3 " Travels in North America," Hon. C. A. Murray, vol. i., p. 321. Morgan's 
'•League of the Iroquois, pp. 299-302. 

4 " Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of North America," vol. ii. 
. 197. London, 1860. 



GAME OF SPEAR AND KING. 



355 



the following : " Their game of Spear and Ring is ex- 
tremely curious and difficult. The players are divided 
into two camps, for Indians are fond of collective par- 
ties in which are many conquerors, and consequently 
many conquered. The stakes and bets are deposited 
in the care of an old man ; then a hard smooth ground, 
without vegetation of any kind, is chosen, in the mid- 
dle of which is placed perpendicularly a stone ring 
of about three inches diameter. When all is prepared, 
the players (armed with spears six or seven feet long, 
furnished with small shields a little apart from each 
other, sometimes with bits of leather) rush forward, 
two at a time, one from each camp ; they stoop so as 
to place their spears on a horizontal level with the 
ring, so that they may pass through it — the great test 
of skill being to succeed without upsetting it. Each 
small shield or bit of leather that passes through, 
counts for a point : the victory remains to the player 
who has most points, or he w T ho upsets the ring at 
the last hit. 

" Some Indians render the game still more difficult 
by playing it as follows : One of the players takes the 
ring in his hand and sends it rolling, with all his 
strength, as far as possible on the prepared ground ; 
his adversary who is by his side, starts full speed after 
it to stop it, so as to string it on his spear as far as the 
last little shield. 

" The Mojaves had a game so similar to the above 
that to avoid repetition it need only be mentioned. 
The Natchez favorite pastime was very like the spear 
game, except that it required more strength and ad- 
dress. Only two men could play at a time. One threw 
with all his strength, and as far as possible, a long 
stick of the shape of a bat, and before it came to the 



356 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



ground, rolled a huge circular stone in the same direc- 
tion. His adversary then threw a stick like the first, 
and he whose bat came nearest the stone gained a 
point and the right to launch the stone in his turn : 
which was a great advantage, as from the impulse he 
gave it a player was able to guess about how far the 
stone would roll. 1 ' 

Speaking of the Mandans, Catlin 1 says : " The games 
and amusements of these people are in most respects 
like those of the other tribes, consisting of ball plays 
— game of the moccasin, of the platter — feats of arch- 
ery — horse-racing, etc. ; and they have yet another, 
which may be said to be their favorite amusement, 
and unknown to the other tribes about them — the 
game of Tchung-kee, a beautiful athletic exercise, 
which they seem to be almost unceasingly practising 
whilst the weather is fair, and they have nothing else 
of moment to demand their attention. This game is 
decidedly their favorite amusement, and is played near 
to the village on a pavement of clay, which has been 
used for that purpose until it has become as smooth 
and hard as a floor. For this game two champions 
form their respective parties by choosing alternately 
the most famous players until their requisite numbers 
are made up. Their bettings are then made, and their 
stakes are held by some of the chiefs or others present. 
The play commences (plate 59) with two (one from 
each party), who start off upon a trot, abreast of each 
other, and one of them rolls in advance of them, on 
the pavement, a little ring of two or three inches in 
diameter, cut out of stone ; and each one follows it up 
with his ' tchung-kee ' (a stick of six feet in length, 



1 11 Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North Ameri- 
can Indians," etc., seventh edition, vol. i., p. 132. London, 1848. 



TC HUNG— KEE GAME. 



357 



with little bits of leather projecting from its sides of 
an inch or more in length), which he throws before 
him as he runs, sliding it along upon the ground after 
the ring, endeavoring to place it in such a position 
when it stops, that the ring may fall upon it, and re- 
ceive one of the little projections of leather through 
it, which counts for game one, or two, or four, accord- 
ing to the position of the leather on which the ring is 
lodged. The last winner always has the rolling of the 
ring, and both start and throw the tchung-kee together ; 
if either fails to receive the ring or to lie in a certain 
position, it is a forfeiture of the amount of the num- 
ber he was nearest to, and he loses his throw ; when 
another steps into his place. This game is a very diffi- 
cult one to describe, so as to give an exact idea of it, 
unless one can see it played — it is a game of great 
beauty and fine bodily exercise, and these people be- 
come excessively fascinated with it; often gambling 
away every thing they possess, and even sometimes, 
when every thing else was gone, have been known to 
stake their liberty upon the issue of these games, 
offering themselves as slaves to their opponents in 
case they get beaten." 

No longer is this ancient game played either in 
Georgia or within the limits of conterminous States. 
Like the exercise of the discus in the heroic age, it 
has now become only a tradition — a shadowy memory 
from a nebulous past. The carefully-prepared areas 
over which, from morning until night, the red athletes 
rushed hither and thither in the enthusiastic pursuit 
of this sport, at the expense of time and property and 
personal liberty, are entirely deserted now and rugged 
with the trunks and roots of hus-e forest- trees. The 
anointed poles and the swift hands which launched 



358 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



them, have alike crumbled into nothingness. Winners 
and losers, forgetting their profits and losses, the exulta- 
tions and the disappointments of this exciting amuse- 
ment, are themselves forgotten, and but little remains 
to remind us of the former existence and prevalence 
of this great game, characterized by singular dexterity, 
severe exercise and desperate ventures, save these dis- 
coidal stones, often so remarkable for their symmetry, 
and so expressive of the skill and labor expended in 
their manufacture. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



Stone Tubes. 

The tube, of which Fig. 1, Plate XXI., is a clever 
representation, was found in a small burial-mound in 
Burke County. It is made of serpentine, is thirteen 
inches and a quarter in length, and weighs three 
pounds and a half avoirdupois. The bore at one end 
is circular, and an inch and three-eighths in diam- 
eter. At the other end the commencement of the 
aperture is elliptical in shape, the length of the major 
axis being an inch and three-eighths, and that of the 
minor one inch. At this end the exterior surface has 
been correspondingly flattened. The walls of the tube 
are about three-eighths of an inch in thickness. The 
perforation or bore extends longitudinally through the 
implement, but with diameters gradually diminishing 
from either end, until, at the point where they meet in 
the centre, the opening, which is there circular, is less 
than a quarter of an inch in diameter. In this tube 
the hollow has been compassed not by drilling but by 
gouging out or removing the interior particles of stone 
by means of some sharp-pointed instrument. Longi- 
tudinal scars, caused by the operation, are still dis- 
cernible on the inner surface. No circular striaa can 



300 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



be perceived. The elevated ring around the central 
portion is rudely ornamented with zigzag lines. With 
this exception the exterior surface is smooth, entirely 
plain, and well polished. 

Similar tubes of steatite (Fig. 2, Plate XXI.), 
soapstone, and mica slate, have been found in other 
localities — all, however, smaller than the specimen we 
have just examined. Seven inches would express the 
average length of such as have passed under the 
writer's observation. The bores of some of them are, 
at each end, of like diameter — say an inch and three- 
quarters — gradually lessening as they approach the 
centre, where the width of the aperture does not mate- 
rially vary from a quarter of an inch. The walls are 
sometimes less than a quarter of an inch in thickness. 
Upon the ornamentation of the ends and exterior sur- 
face of these tubes, in some instances, considerable 
pains have been bestowed. Stone tubes not precisely 
similar in character, but hearing a general resemblance, 
have been described and figured by Mr. Schoolcraft, 1 
Messrs. Squier and Davis, 2 and others. An implement 
very like in its conformation is thus noticed by Mr. 
Haywood : 3 " About eighteen miles east from Rogers- 
ville in the county of Hawkins, in East Tennessee, was 
ploughed up a stone trumpet. It tapers on the out- 
side from either end to the middle, and is there sur- 
rounded by two rings of raised stone. The inside, at 
each end, is a hollow of an inch and a quarter in diam- 
eter ; but at one end the orifice is not as large as at the 
other. Probably the sound is shrill and sharp when 
blown from one end, and more full and sonorous when 

1 "Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i., p. 406. 

2 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," pp. 224-227. 

3 "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 210. Nashville, 1823. 



STONE TUBES. 



361 



blown from the other. The hollow continues through- 
out from the one end to the other, but in the middle, 
under the rinsrs, it is not as wide as at the ends. It 
seems to have been made of hard soapstone; and, 
when blown through, makes a sound which may be 
heard perhaps two miles. It is very smooth on the 
outside, but rough within." 

By some, Mr. Schoolcraft among the number, it has 
been suggested that these tubes were telescopic de- 
vices; and, in their construction, he pretends to trace 
an analogy to the tubular chambers used by the Aztec 
and Maya races in their astronomical observations. 
This notion we regard as fanciful ; nor do we sympa- 
thize in the belief of those who pronounce them musical 
instruments. In vain have we endeavored to evoke a 
single sound beyond a dull, dead blast ; and that in- 
capable of transmitting itself to any practicable dis- 
tance. 

We know that the Southern tribes were fond of 
music and dancing, and that their music was both 
vocal and instrumental. Aside, however, from their 
drums, tambours, rattle-gourds, and flutes made of the 
joint of a reed, or of the deer's tibia, they possessed no 
musical instruments worth the mention. 1 So far as 
present recollection serves us, nowhere do we read of 
the use of stone trumpets, or any thing of the sort. It 
is entirely improbable that the Indians would have 
expended so much labor to such little purpose when 
the joint of a swamp-cane, or a large conch, would 
have so readily, and so much better answered the de- 
sired object. "We incline to the opinion that these 
were medicine or cupping-tubes. 

1 See Bartram's " Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., p. 
502. London, 1/792. 



362 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Coreal 1 mentions that when the Florida Indians 
" are sick, they have not their veins opened, as is done 
elsewhere ; but they call for the Jaoimas who are their 
priests and physicians. These suck that part of the 
body which causes the patient most pain ; and they do 
it either with the month or with a kind of shepherd's- 
flute (chalumeau), having first made a small incision 
near some vein." 

Cabeca de Vaca 2 alludes to similar treatment of 
the sick : " The practitioner scarifies over the seat of 
pain, and then sucks about the wound. They make 
cauteries with fire, a remedy among them in high re- 
pute, which I have tried on myself and found benefit 
from it. They afterward blow on the spot, and hav- 
ing finished, the patient considers that he is relieved." 
Ribas, a century afterward, furnishes an account of this 
curative process : " The method of cure the possessed 
practitioners have, is sucking the part that aches ; if it 
be injured, blowing on it : which, for the effort and 
force, may be heard many steps off. . . . They give 
the sick to understand that the causes of their illness 
are the sticks, thorns and pebbles in their bodies, 
which they take out. This is false. They have the 
things in the mouth, or held craftily in the hand, and 
afterwards exhibit them as our tooth-pullers do teeth, 
on a string, as evidences of their professional skill." 3 
After enumerating the cures by burning, smoking, 
scarifying, and sweating, Beverly states that the Vir- 
ginia Indians sometimes made use of reeds for cauter- 

1 "Voyages aux Indes Occidentales," tome i., p. 39. Amsterdam, 1722. Co- 
real visited Florida in 1669. 

2 "Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 81. New York, 1871. 

3 Ibid., p. 82, note. New York, 1871. 



MEDICINE— TUBES. 



3G3 



izing, which tliey heated over the fire until they were 
on the eve of ignition, and then applied, upon a piece 
of thin wet leather, to the part affected, 1 

In his account of the aboriginal inhabitants of the 
Californian Peninsula, the German Jesuit missionary J a- 
cob Baegert, commenting upon the state of the medical 
art as it existed among the Indians of that region dur- 
ing the second half of the last century, writes : " There 
are many impostors among them pretending to possess 
the power of curing diseases, and the ignorant Indians 
have so much faith in their art that they send for one 
or more of these scoundrels whenever they are indis- 
posed. In treating a sick person, these jugglers em- 
ploy a small tube which they use for sucking or blow- 
ing the patient for a while, making also various gri- 
maces, and muttering something which they do not un- 
derstand themselves, until, ' finally, after much hard 
breathing and panting, they show the patient a flint, 
or some other object previously hidden about their 
persons, pretending to have at last removed the real 
cause of the disorder." 2 

Vene^as 8 confirms the observation of Baegert with 
regard to the use of stone tubes by the medicine-men 
of the California Indians : " One mode was very re- 
markable, and the good effect it sometimes produced 
heightened the reputation of the physician. They ap- 
plied to the suffering part of the patient's body the 
chacuaco, or a tube formed out of a very hard black 
stone; and through this they sometimes sucked, and 
other times blew, but both as hard as they were able, 

1 "History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chap, ix., p. 49. London, 
1705. 

2 Prof. Rau's "translation," etc. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion for 1864, p. 386. 

3 "Natural and Civil History of California," vol. i., p. 97. London, 1759. 



364 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



supposing that thus the disease was either exhaled or 
dispersed. Sometimes the tube was filled with cimar- 
Ton or wild tobacco lighted, and here they either 
sucked in or blew down the smoke, according to the 
physician's direction ; and this powerful caustick some- 
times, without any other remedy, has been known en- 
tirely to remove the disorder." 

These authorities confirm our impression that tubes 
— like those we have been considering — were medici- 
nal in their uses, and materially assisted the primitive 
physician — at once quack and conjurer — in perform- 
ing his wonderful cures. The flattened end appears 
adapted to the lips. This, and the small hole in the 
centre of the bore, facilitated both the blowing and the 
sucking process. By the circular opening at the larger 
end, the seat of pain could have been conveniently 
covered. The weight of the instrument enhanced its 
efficiency, and rendered more facile its preservation in 
the desired position. While under treatment, Indian 
patients were compelled to assume more than a recum- 
bent position. They were obliged to lie flat down, 
now on the back, and again on the stomach. If we go 
one step farther and suppose the cavity next to the 
flattened end filled with punk, dried tobacco-leaves, or 
some combustible material, the other end of the tube 
being firmly applied to the part affected, which had 
been previously scarified, we will perceive, when the 
contained substance was ignited, how readily this tube 
would have answered the purposes either of cauteriza- 
tion or cupping. In the one case the particles of burn- 
ing matter dropping through the central opening would 
have blistered and burnt the diseased spot ; while in 
the other, the active fire kindled in the upper portion 
of the tube — the ashes by a simple contrivance being 



OKISTAMENTAL TUBES. 



303 



prevented from falling through the narrow portion of 
the bore below — would have created and maintained 
during its existence a vacuum in the lower part of the 
tube, thus causing the blood to flow freely from the 
incisions made in the flesh. 

Other tubes (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, Plate XXI.) 
occur, which, apparently, were used as ornaments. 
These vary in length from two to three inches and a 
half, and in general conformation resemble triangular 
prisms, with convex sides, and angles slightly rounded. 
Steatite, talcose slate, and soapstone, were the custom- 
ary materials employed in their construction. Perfo- 
rated longitudinally, the average diameter of their 
bores may be stated at from three-eighths to one-half 
of an inch. Numbers of such relics have been found 
along the banks of the Savannah River above Augusta, 
and in other portions of the State. The exterior sur- 
face is not infrequently ornamented with incised lines, 
curved, straight, and zigzag. Ordinarily, the holes 
were drilled, the circular strise being clearly defined, 
and the bore of equal diameter throughout the entire 
length of the article. Our impression is that they were 
worn as ornaments. In Fig. 125, of the "Ancient 
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," 1 are represented 
two varieties of stone tubes of this class. 



1 Page 227. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 



Stones for rounding Arrow-shafts. — Whetstones or Sharpeners. — Pierced Tablets. 
— Pendants. — Slung-stones. — Amulets. — Stone Plate. — Mica Mirrors. — Sculp- 
tured Rocks. 

At a large hunting-camp, which had been aban- 
doned by the Indians, Captain Romans 1 noticed " some 
stones deejay marked by the savages with some un- 
couth marks, but most of them straight lines and 
crossed." He conjectured that they had been used for 
grinding awls. The only means the natives possessed 
of restoring an eds;e to their worn and blunted axes 
and other stone implements was, by rubbing them 
against whetstones. Hence we frequently meet with 
irregularly-shaped stones, grooved and scarred by this 
process. It will be remembered that the hard canes 
of the Southern swamps supplied the red hunters of 
this region with convenient and abundant store of 
arrows. The material was most suitable for this pur- 
pose, combining, as it did, requisite size, durability and 
lightness. No labor was necessary in shaping the 
arrow, save such as was expended in removing the 
exterior sheath, in smoothing the joints, in straighten- 
ing and in cutting the reed off at the desired length. 



1 " Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," p. 327. New York, 
1115. 



Pi aie mr 




WHET STONES. PIEECED TABLETS. 367 

When the green cane was subjected to a certain degree 
of heat, its natural moisture was readily expelled, and 
the reed easily freed from any irregularities. If made, 
while heated, to assume a direct line, it would not de- 
viate therefrom when cold and dry. In order to facili- 
tate this straightening and polishing of the arrow, it 
was, while hot, passed through grooves made in sand- 
stone or in some other coarse-grained stone. These 
grooves are generally carefully made in direct lines, 
are even in their diameters, and frequently intersect 
each other at right angles, thereby presenting the ap- 
pearance of crosses. An example is represented in 
Fig. 1, Plate XXII. 

It will be perceived that the heated cane arrow, 
when pressed and rubbed in these grooves, would not 
only be freed from all irregularity of surface, but would 
also be compelled to assume a direct line. Such a con- 
trivance equally facilitated the manufacture and polish- 
ins; of wooden arrows — the rousvh. surface of the stone 
acting as a file in reducing the shaft to the desired size 
and roundness. These stones for rottndixg> areow- 
shaets are readily distinguished from the ordinary 
whetstones, so generally employed for sharpening the 
edges of axes , and other cutting implements. (Fig. 7, 
Plate XXII.) 

Pierced Tablets. — Various as the fancies of the 
makers are the shapes of these relics. 

The illustrations prepared by Messrs. Squier and 
Davis of the " gorgets " of the Mississippi Valley 1 aptly 
represent most of those generally found in the mounds, 
relic-beds, and fields of Georgia and her sister States. 
Many of them were made of a beautiful slate, with 

1 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," pp. 236, 237. Washing- 
ton, D. C., 1848. 



368 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

from, two to five perforations, and are so thin and deli- 
cately constructed that they could have served only 
the purposes of ornament. Pierced tablets of this 
class are lozenge-shaped, oval, parallelogranimic, or fash- 
ioned after the similitude of the lid of a coffin. Oth- 
ers, again, are cruciform and star-shaped. In fine, their 
forms are varied, and in many instances quite fanciful. 
Many possess only a single perforation in the upper 
end or near the middle. Most, however, have two 
holes drilled about an inch apart and through the cen- 
tral portion. They vary in length from three to eight 
inches, in width from three-quarters of an inch to three 
inches, and in thickness from the sixteenth to a quarter 
of an inch. The edges are frequently ornamented with 
notches, and the broad surfaces are sometimes covered 
with incised lines. In all instances of this ornamental 
class it will be observed that the jDerforations are uni- 
form, generally varying from the eighth to a quarter 
of an inch in diameter. Objects of this fragile descrip- 
tion were, we think, intended as ornaments, and were 
suspended from the neck or fastened to some conspicu- 
ous part of the vestment. 

There is another variety, however, so much more 
substantial in its character that it seems to have been 
designed for practical use. Relics of this class are 
made of serpentine, of greenstone, and of hard slate. 
Even jasper has been employed in their manufacture. 
They are thick and durable. It is not uncommon to 
meet with one of them fully an inch in thickness, 
although most of them do not attain that dimension 
by a half. They contain in most instances only two 
perforations, located in the central part of the imple- 
ment, and about an inch or an inch and a quarter distant 
from each other. These perforations — unlike those ob- 



* 



PIERCED TABLETS. 



309 



served in the case of the ornamental pierced tablets — 
are conical in form. The drilling is never done from 
both sides, bnt only from that side where the aperture 
is largest. The shape of the perforation is evidently 
not accidental, because a uniformity exists. The aper- 
ture on one side is about twice as wide as it is on 
the other. Such is the general rule in the case of the 
thicker " gorgets," and hence it has been suggested that 
implements of this class were employed by the Indians 
.in the manufacture of their bow-strings. The material 
used for this purpose, it is believed, could be readily 
pressed through the wider opening and then drawn so 
as to make it conform to an even size. Several thongs 
thus passed through the two or three apertures in the 
same gorget, when drawn to the required length, all 
being of the same size, could conveniently have been 
twisted into one common, strong cord. Of this vari- 
ety we figure two typical specimens (Figs. 2 and 3, 
Plate XXII.). 

In response to a letter from Prof. Charles Rau, Mr. 
Catlin writes : " With regard to the tablets of which 
you speak, I have seen several, but the holes were 
much larger than those you describe. Those which I 
have seen were used by the Indians for grooving the 
shafts of their arrows. All arrows of the jDrimitive In- 
dians are found with three grooves extending from the 
arrow's shoulder at the fluke, to the feathers, and con- 
ducting the air between them so as to give them 
steadiness. These grooves, on close examination, . are 
found to be indented by pressure, and not in any way 
cut out ; and this pressure is produced, while forcing 
the arrow softened by steam through a hole in the 
tablet, with the incisor of a bear set firmly in a handle 
and projecting over the rim of the hole T as the arrow- 

24 



370 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOTJTHEKN INDIANS. 

shaft is forced downward through the tablet, getting 
compactness and on the surface and in the groove a 
smoothness which no cutting, filing, or scraping can 
produce. It would be useless to pass the bowstring 
through the tablet, for the evenness and the hardness 
of the strings are produced much more easily and 
effectually by rolling them, as they do, between two 
flat stones whilst saturated with heated glue." 

It thus appears that this extensive and venerable 
observer discountenances the idea that these perforated 
tablets were employed in the manufacture of bow- 
strings, thongs, and cords. Since, through the kind- 
ness of Prof. Rau, we have been made acquainted with 
these remarks of Mr. Catlin, we have carefully examined 
the tablets in our possession and have failed to note 
any impression produced upon the edges of the perfora- 
tions by the pressure of any thing like the incisor of a 
bear. Remembering the rather soft material from 
which many of these tablets were made, we might rea- 
sonably anticipate the presence of some abrasion in the 
perforations if they were subjected to a constant use 
such as has been suggested. 

Pendants. — The typical forms indicated by Messrs. 
Squier and Davis in the " Ancient Monuments of the 
Mississippi Valley," 1 have their counterparts among the 
relics of the Southern Indians. The pear-shaped pen- 
dant, with groove around the upper end, is by no means 
infrequent. Brown hematite, greenstone, quartz, and 
a variegated jasper, were the materials selected for its 
manufacture. Of this variety some are so delicate, so 
beautiful, and so carefully polished, that they seem 
to have been designed for nose and ear ornaments. 2 

1 Page 235. 

2 Adair (" History of the American Indians," pp. 170, 171. London, 1775) 
alludes to the use of coarse diamonds and bits of stone fastened with deer's sinew 



PEXDANTS. 



Most of thein, however, are so heavy that they could 
not well have answered such a purpose. May not the 
larger sorts have been employed — after the fashion of 
the modern bobbin — in twisting bow-strings, plaiting 
belts, and in weaving various articles for personal 
decoration \ 

From the peculiar shape and the careless manner 
in which many — found in the relic-beds along the 
river-banks — have been fashioned, it seems probable 
that they were intended as fishing-plummets. In 
their construction soapstone was the favorite material 
used. Often triangular in shape, sometimes they ap- 
pear in the form of a double conoid, with a groove 
around the middle. These are usually so much lighter 
than the net-sinkers, and differ so essentially from 
them in figure, that they need not be confounded with 
them. Specimens of this class often resemble num- 
ber 5, figure 132, "Ancient Monuments of the Missis- 
sippi Valley," although, instead of being notched at 
the upper end, many have a groove around the middle ; 
while others — made of soapstone or slate — are trav- 
ersed by longitudinal as well as transverse grooves. 

Nearly allied to the pear-shaped pendant is an in- 
strument which, when first observed by the writer, he 
regarded as a pendant whose upper end had been 
broken off and then flattened by attrition. Other 
relics, however, identical in shape, proved that the 
form was designed and not accidental. Carver ob- 
served among; the Indians living westward of the Mis- 
sissippi River a warlike implement consisting of a 
stone of middling size, curiously wrought and fastened 



to the hair, the nose, the ear, and the maccaseene ; and Lawson ( ,; History of 
Carolina," p. 314, Ealeigb reprint, 1S60) declares that some of the Indians wore 
great bobs in their ears. 



372 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

by a string, about a yard and a half long, to the right 
arm a little above the elbow. Such stones the natives 
carried in their hands until they approached their ene- 
mies, when, riding at full speed, they swung them 
with great dexterity and never failed of doing execu- 
tion. 1 

Among the Shoshonee Indians, Lewis and Clarke 
noticed an instrument consisting of a handle about 
the size of a whip-handle, made of wood, twenty-two 
inches long and covered with leather. . At one end 
was a thong two inches in length, to which was at- 
tached a stone weighing two pounds, enclosed in a 
leather cover. At the other end was a loop by means 
of which the implement was secured to the wrist. 
With this weapon they struck a powerful blow. It 
may be that the pear-shaj>ed stones, now under exam- 
ination, were made for some such purpose, and that 
they were carried and handled very much as slung- 
shots are used in the present day. Those in our pos- 
session are about as large as a turkey-egg, closely re- 
sembling it in shape, save that the pointed end has 
been cut off at right angles. (See Fig. 4, Plate XXII.) 
They have not the clearly-defined necks possessed by 
the relics delineated in Fig. 117, of the u Ancient Monu- 
ments of the Mississippi Valley." 2 Stones, for throw- 
ing by hand and perhaps by means of a sling, occur fre- 
quently. They are commonly round or ovoidal, and 
appear to have been gathered from the beds of streams 
— or rudely fashioned from soapstone. 

Amulets. — Fig. 5, Plate XXII, represents a class of 
objects frequently found in Ohio and in other portions 
of North America, but seldom seen in that part of the 

1 u Travels," etc., pp. 294, 295. London, 1*778. 

2 Page 219. 



AMULETS. STONE PLATES. 



373 



country once occupied by the Southern tribes. Gen- 
erally made of a greenish striped slate, they are, in most 
instances, designed to represent a bird. Their use is not 
well understood, but it is probable that they possessed 
some conventional significance and importance in con- 
nection with the religious ideas of the Indians. Three 
of these strange articles are figured on page 239 of the 
u Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," and 
their varying forms are richly shown in the valuable 
collection of the Smithsonian Institution. It has been 
suggested by some that they were used for husking 
Indian-corn. This idea we regard as entirely fanciful . 
It appears much more probable that they were es- 
teemed and worn as charms, as badges of distinction, 
or as religious tokens. 

Stone Plate. — So far as our information extends, 
this relic (Fig. 6, Plate XXII.) was the first of its kind 
found within the limits of the United States. It was 
ploughed ujd in 1859, on the lower terrace of the large 
temple-mound on the Etowah River, upon the planta- 
tion of Colonel Lewis Tumlin, near Cartersville. This 
interesting locality has proved the thesaurus of more 
valuable and curious aboriginal remains than any other 
spot in Georgia, To the companionship of the terraced 
mound, the stone idols, idol-pipes, simulacra of various 
sorts, fish-preserves, gold and pearl beads, shell orna- 
ments, ising-glass mirrors and sundry beautiful imple- 
ments of diorite, hornblend, jasper and flint, may now be 
added this stone plate, circular in form, eleven inches and 
a half in diameter, an inch and a quarter in thickness, 
and weighing nearly seven pounds. It is made of a 
close-grained, sea-green slate, and bears upon its surface 
the stains of centuries. Between the rim, which is 
scalloped, and the central portion, are two circular de- 



374 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKJST INDIANS. 

pressed rings, running parallel with the circumference 
and incised to the depth of the tenth of an inch. The 
central portion, or basin, is hollowed out to the depth 
of rather more than the eighth of an inch. This cir- 
cular basin, nearly eight inches in diameter, is sur- 
rounded by a margin or rim, a little less than two 
inches in width, traversed by the incised rings and 
bevelled from the centre toward the edge. The lower 
surface or bottom of the plate is flat, bevelled upward, 
however, as it approaches the scalloped edge, which is 
not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness. 

Two stone plates, similar in material, size, and 
general configuration, were unearthed in this locality. 
"Within the past eighteen months, two relics of this 
class, but less elaborate in their construction and 
smaller, were obtained from a mound on the Black 
Warrior Eiver in the State of Alabama. They now 
form a part of the collection of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution at Washington. 

The use of these plates from the Etowah Valley 
may, we think, be conjectured with at least some de- 
gree of probability. It is not likely that they were 
employed for domestic or culinary purposes. Their 
weight, rarity, the care evidenced in their construction, 
and the amount of time and labor necessarily expended 
in their manufacture, forbid the belief that they were 
intended as ordinary dishes from which the daily meal 
was to be eaten, and suggest the impression that they 
were designed to fulfil a more unusual and important 
office. The common vessels from which the natives 
of this region ate their prepared food were bowls and 
pans fashioned of wood and baked clay, calabashes, 
pieces of bark, and large shells. Flat platters, made 
of an admixture of clay and pounded shells, well 



(XFFEKINGS TO IDOLS. 



375 



kneaded and burnt, were ordinarily employed for 
baking corn-cakes and frying meat ; but it does not 
anywhere appear that ornamented stone plates were in 
general use. 

It will be remembered that at some remote period 
idol-worship existed among many of the Southern 
tribes. The religious duty of offering fruits and food 
to these lesser deities was not neglected. We are told 
that the Virginia Indians represented their inferior 
gods by the forms of men, calling such images Kewa- 
sowok. These they placed in temples, and in their 
presence worshipped, prayed, sung, and made repeated 
offerings. 1 

The stone column which Ribault placed upon a 
mound to mark the limit of the French empire in the 
New World, was by the Florida Indians elevated into 
the dignity of a superior being. From top to bottom 
it was encircled with flowers and the branches of 
choicest trees, while at its base were constantly ex- 
posed offerings of fruits, corn, favorite roots, bows and 
arrows, and earthen vessels filled with perfumed oils. 2 

While the sun, as the most potent representative 
of an unseen yet acknowledged divinity with supreme 
powers, formed the chief object of religious worship 
among the ancient tribes who peopled the Etowah 
Valley, there existed, nevertheless, images which, per- 
haps at the instance of designing priests and conjurers, 
claimed the devotion of the masses. The precise posi- 
tion assigned to them in the theogony of that rude age 
does not fully appear ; and yet, from out the depths of 
that dark period, comes light enough to reveal the fact 
that these idols — subordinate though they were to the 

1 Hariot's " Virginia," p. 26. Francoforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 

2 Plate viii. of the " Brevis Narratio." 



376 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

Great Spirit and to the celestial luminaries — were still 
invested with attributes and influences which it be- 
hooved weaker man to stand in awe of and to propi- 
tiate. 

We incline to the opinion that these stone plates 
were designed for sacred uses, and that in them was 
exposed the food offered to the Dii Minores of those 
peoples who, antedating the modern Indians — dwellers 
here at the dawn of the historic period — erected the 
large temple-mound in honor of that great God who 
mingled not with men, and before whose flaming min- 
ister — the sun— they prostrated themselves in blind 
yet profound adoration. 

Mica Membranacea. — Large plates of ising-glass 
are frequently found in the sepulchral tumuli of Geor- 
gia, associated with articles of use and ornament, the 
property of the dead at the period of the inhumation. 
The largest which has fallen under the observation of 
the writer is elliptical in form, measuring thirteen 
inches in length, ten inches in width, and nearly half 
an inch in thickness. Usually, however, these mirrors 
— for such it appears proper to regard them — are much 
smaller. The customary size may be expressed by 
seven inches in length and five inches in width. 
Often elliptical, they are sometimes square or parallelo- 
grammic in shape, and at other times quifce irregular in 
their outlines. Being thick, and readily reflecting the 
opposed image, they answered tolerably well the pur- 
poses of looking-glasses. We are not aware that any 
specimens have been found backed by copper plates. 
If originally enclosed in frames, these were fashioned of 
such perishable materials that they long since crumbled 
into nothingness, leaving no traces of their former pres- 
ence or attachment. The frequent occurrence of these 



MIRRORS OF MICA MEMBRANACEA. 377 

ising-glass mirrors, not only in the ancient graves and 
mounds but also upon the sites of old Indian villages 
and in relic-beds, attests the fact of their general use 
among the aborigines. Through their assistance, the 
process of personal decoration, of painting, and of tat- 
tooing, was materially facilitated ; and it is not improb- 
able that they formed a source of special delight to 
many of the softer sex, who even in that rude age were 
not ignorant of their personal charms, or indifferent to 
such artificial aids as might tend to enhance their beauty 
and attractions in the eyes of their savage admirers. 

Occasionally a hole drilled through the lower edge 
of the plate — elongated after the fashion of a handle — 
assures us that the mirror was sometimes suspended 
for convenient use, and that it was thus rendered more 
apt for facile transportation. 

Sculptured Kocks. — In Forsyth County, Georgia, 
is a carved or incised bowlder of fine-grained granite, 
about nine feet long, four feet six inches high, and three 
feet broad at its widest point. The figures are cut in 
the bowlder from one-half to three-quarters of an inch 
deep. {See illustrations, p. 378.) 

As yet no interpretation of these figures has been 
offered, nor is it known by whom or for what purpose 
they were made. It is generally believed, however, 
that they are the work of the Cherokees. On the 
eastern end of the bowlder, running vertically, is a line 
of dots, like drill-holes, eighteen in number, connected 
by an incised line. 

Upon the Enchanted Mountain in Union County, 
cut in plutonic rock, are the tracks of men, women, 
children, deer, bears, bisons, turkeys and terrapins, and 
the outlines of a snake, of two , deer, and of a human 
hand. These sculptures — so far as they have been as- 



378 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



certained and counted — number one hundred and thir- 
ty-six. The most extravagant among them is that 
known as the footprint of the " Great Warrior." It 




South Side of the above. 



measures eighteen inches in length, and has six toes. 
The other human tracks and those of the animals are 
delineated with commendable fidelity. One track — 
wdiich has been indifferently described as that of a 
horse and a buffalo — is seventeen inches long. These 
impressions are artificial, and were scraped or chiselled 
out of the rock apparently with the aid of cutting im- 
plements of flint. The accuracy and skill displayed 
in the construction of some of them challenge admi- 
ration, while others are clumsily and rudely made. 
Most of them present the appearance of the natural 
tread of the animal in plastic clay. Twenty-six of 
these sculptures represent impressions of human feet — 
varying in length from four to seventeen inches — all 



INTAGLIOS. ROCK-WRITING. 



379 



of them bare, save one, which was covered with a moc- 
casin. 1 

These intaglios closely resemble those described by 
Mr. Ward as existing upon the upheaved slabs of 
coarse carboniferous grit, in Belmont County, Ohio, 
near the town of Barnesville. 2 

Among the mountains which fence in the upper 
portion of Georgia, in several localities, may still be 
seen, carved in rock, similar intaglios and rude repre- 
sentations of the sun, the human form and hand, the 
bow and arrow, the canoe, and various circles and ir- 
regular figures which, at the present day, seem almost 
meaningless exhibitions of the fancies of those by 
whom they were traced. 

Intended, doubtless — especially when associated in 
groups — to perpetuate the recollection of some memo: 
rable event, the histories which they chronicled and 
the traditions they were designed to transmit, have, 
like the peoples who formed them, quite faded from 
the memory of succeeding generations. As yet we 
have seen nothing of this sort which rises above the 
dignity of rude picture-writing, such as at later periods 
has been, in a more ephemeral way, practised by the 
modern Indians in commemoration of an engagement, 
in adoration of the sun, in token of an alliance, in ex- 
planation of some marked occurrence, and in imitation 
of some well-known natural object. We search in vain 
for alphabet, lettered shaft, phonetic sign or digit. 
Rude representations all, they do but feebly shadow 
forth the earliest efforts at physical expression of com- 
mon incidents, the most primitive attempts at com- 

1 Stephenson's "Geology and Mineralogy of Georgia," pp. 199, 201. Atlanta, 
Georgia, 1871. White's " Historical Collections of Georgia," p. 658. New York, 
1854. 

2 Journal of the Anthropological Institute of New York, No. 1, p. 57, et seq. 



380 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 



rnunicating thoughts and perpetuating the recollec- 
tion of events by visible shapes. A few symbols there 
were, which possessed and retained an acknowledged 
significance, recognized by all. 

The labors of the aborigines upon the summit of 
Stone Mountain, so far as we have been able to ex- 
amine them, seem to have been directed not, as has 
been surmised, to the cutting of hieroglyphics and the 
fashioning of curious figures in the granite, but to the 
preparation of little ditches or trenches for the protec- 
tion of their tires. The mountain being entirely bald 
and consisting of hard granite, during a storm the rain 
— unabsorbed by the rock — would flow freely down 
the sides and soon smother the fires kindled upon its 
surface. In order to avoid this inconvenience, the In- 
dians resorted to the expedient of cutting in the rock 
circular and horseshoe-shaped troughs or trenches, 
which would catch the rain-water in its descent and 
divert it from the interior spaces upon which their 
fires were burning. A marked similarity exists in the 
sizes and shapes of these fireplaces, which are scattered 
in considerable numbers upon the summit and western 
slope of the mountain. They are generally from three 
to four feet in diameter, and are circular, semicircular, 
and elliptical in form. The incised trenches or ditches 
surrounding them are from four to seven inches in 
width, and from two to three inches deep. In the 
centre of almost every hearth is a fissure in the rock, 
which materially aided in preserving the fire. Of 
these fissures the natives availed themselves in the 
location of their fireplaces ; and, in some instances, at 
no little labor enlarged them and formed adjacent ele- 
vations in the rock, as convenient resting-places for 
the earthen vessels in which they cooked their food. 



SCULPTUEE. 



881 



We have thus, in our opinion, a simple explanation of 
the practical use of these incised lines, artificial eleva- 
tions, and trenches cut in the rock, which have been 
supposed by many to possess a hidden and mysterious 
significance. 

The delightful temperature of this mountain — a 
stupendous pyramid rising in austere and solitary 
grandeur above the plain — during the summer at- 
tracted the natives. That it was a favorite resort of 
the primitive peoples who in former centuries occu- 
pied this region, is attested by the presence of these 
laboriously-constructed fireplaces, and by mortars, per- 
manent in their character and hollowed out of the rock. 
This impression is confirmed by the traces of a defen- 
sive rock-wall which at one period fortified the entire 
crest of the mountain. 

It is above the wall, and around the summit of 
Stone Mountain, that the indications of long-continued 
occupation by the red-men are most abundant. 

Returning from this digression, we would remark 
that in the stone images, idol, bird, and animal-shaped 
pipes, and in the large ornamented shell-gorgets, we 
trace more emphatically than in any thing else the 
progress made by the Southern Indians in the art of 
sculpture. As the distinguishing peculiarities of these 
relics will, however, be considered in a subsequent 
part of this work, it is unnecessary to anticipate what 
will be said on the subject. These various devices 
and imitations in stone and shell, while they often ex- 
hibit no little skill and ingenuity, are, after all, but 
rude expressions of the taste of the untaught, and fall 
far short of what may properly be considered works of 
art. Few and feeble were the attempts to transmit 
important memories by means of enduring physical 



3S2 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEBN INDIAN'S. 

signs and pictorial illustrations. Upon the rock-walls 
which guard the confines of Northern Georgia, we look 
in vain for any monumental traces of the history of the 
tribes who were native here long before the advent of 
the European. Among the relics intermingled with 
the soil upon which they dwelt, we search fruitlessly 
for a single tablet whereon were engraven their laws 
or the names of their kings, priests, and warriors. They 
lived and died, peoples without letters, and the Muse 
of History finds scarce an epitaph for their tombs. 
Trusting to the trembling voice of the aged warrior 
for a record of the brave deeds of their ancestors, and 
committing to the memory of the younger chieftain the 
story of their present achievements, they gave to the 
passing wind the spoken word, but carved not a line 
and reared not a column in commemoration either of 
the past or the present. History is voiceless where 
the use of iron and of letters is unknown. Under 
such circumstances, the most we can hope to discover 
is comprehended in vague traditions, and in the silent 
teachings of monuments and relics which have escaped 
the destructive influences of time. We compare, we 
conjecture, we speculate. The rest is darkness. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



Pipes. — The Use of Tobacco. — Idol Pipes. — Calumets, — Common Pipes. 

The pipes of the North American Indians possess 
an importance, both traditional and historic, which, 
elevating them above the category of ordinary relics, 
claims for them a moral, religions, and political value, 
which must be duly appreciated in forming a suitable 
estimate of their office and in comprehending the va- 
rious purposes they were intended to answer. It is 
not only as the media through which the narcotic in- 
fluences of tobacco were imparted, nor as articles of 
pride and ornament upon which the protracted labor 
and best skill of the primitive artists were expended, 
nor yet as the acknowledged symbols of alternate 
peace and war that they are to be regarded. Combin- 
ing all these, they rise higher and confess themselves, 
in their origin, the immediate gift of the Great Spirit 
by whom they were invested with certain prescribed 
sanctities, and, in their uses, fenced about with positive 
injunctions whose non-observance entailed disaster and 
supreme displeasure. Devotional also in their uses, 
their agency was invoked in solemnities which brought 
the red nomad face to face with his Creator. Then 
the puffs of smoke blown to the four quarters of the 



3S4 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

heavens were redolent of the petitions of the devotees. 
Taking the place of sacrifice, through them propitia- 
tion was made to an angered divinity. In sunshine 
and abundance they were the ministers of gratitude — 
the exponents of joy and thanksgiving. Among the 
primitive inhabitants of at least some of the Southern 
regions, they were elevated to the dignity of idols be- 
fore whose elaborately-carved forms of man, and beast, 
and bird, the deluded fell down and worshipped. It 
is only among the North American Indians that such 
peculiar historic interest attaches to the Pipe — only 
among the ancient peoples of this region that we lo- 
cate customs, ceremonies, and traditions, at once most 
curious and unique. 

Standing on the precipice of the red-pipe-stone 
rock of Coteau des JPrairies, the Great Spirit broke 
from it a fragment, and, by merely turning it in his 
hands, made out of it a huge pipe which, having 
smoked, he proclaimed a symbol of peace among all 
his children, declaring this stone common property, 
ordering peace-pipes to be fashioned from it, and for- 
bidding the war-club and the scalping-knife to be lifted 
near it. 1 Prof. Wilson 9 very justly remarks that, " in 
the Old World the ideas connected with the tobacco- 
pipe are prosaic enough. The chibouk may, at times, 
be associated with the poetical reveries of the Oriental 
clay-dreamer, and the hookah with pleasant fancies of 
the Anglo-Indian reposing in the shade of his bunga- 
low ; but its seductive, antique mystery, and all its 
symbolic significance, pertain to the New World." 

Longfellow, accordingly, fitly opens his Song of 
Hiawatha with the institution of " the Peace-Pipe." 

1 See Stevens' "Flint Chips," p. 522. London, 1870. 

2 l> Prehistoric Man," p. 312. London, 1865. 



CALUMET j OR PEACE-PIPE. 



885 



The Master of Life descends on the mountains of the 
prairie, breaks a fragment from the red stone of the 
quarry, and fashioning it with curious art into a pipe- 
head, tills it with the bark of the red-willow, chafes 
the forest into flame with the tempest of his breath, 
and kindling it smokes the calumet as a signal to the 
nations. The tribes of the ancient aborigines gather, 
at the divine summons, from river, lake, and prairie, 
to listen to the warnings and promises with which 
the Great Spirit seeks to guide them. This august 
audience concluded, the warriors having buried their 
war-clubs, smoke their first peace-pipe and depart : 

" While tlie Master of Life, ascending 
Through the opening cloud-curtains 
Through the door- ways of the heaven, 
Vanished from before their faces, 
In the smoke that rolled around him, 
The pukwana of the peace-pipe." 

For tobacco a divine origin is said to have been 
claimed by the American Indians, who regarded it as 
a direct gift from the Great Spirit, for their special en- 
joyment. Indeed, according to Hariot, they believed 
that the Great Spirit was himself addicted to the 
habit of smoking. The pipe, therefore, came to be 
regarded as a sacred object, and smoking partook of 
the character of a moral if not a religious act. 1 The 
incense of tobacco was deemed pleasing to the Father 
of Life, and the ascending smoke was selected as the 
most suitable medium of communication with the 
world of spirits. The ordinary pipe was the constant 
companion and the unfailing solace of the Indian. 
Upon the war-path, while engaged in hunting, and 

1 Stevens' " Flint Chips," p. 318. London, 18T0. 

15 



3 36 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

amid the lazy hours of his rude home-life, it was 
ever near, ministering to his pleasure and comforting 
him under misfortunes. Its introduction was essential 
to a formal declaration of war, and to the conclusion 
of a treaty of peace. Alternate whiffs were then 
tantamount to a signing and sealing by the parties in 
interest. Most important was the office of the Calu- 
met. No tribal organization, no solemn assembly was 
complete without it, and the ceremonies observed in its 
honor were impressive and conducted with the utmost 
care and regularity. 

" This Calumet" says Father Hennepin, 1 " is the most 
mysterious Thing in the "World among the Savages of 
the Continent of the Northern America; for it is us'd in 
all their important Transactions : However, it is noth- 
ing else but a large Tobacco-Pipe made of Red, Black 
or "White Marble : The Head is finely polish' cl, and 
the Quill, which is commonly two foot and a half long, 
is made of a pretty strong Reed or Cane, adorn' d with 
Feathers of all Colours, interlac'd with Locks of Wom- 
en's Hair. They tie to it two Wings of the most cu- 
rious Birds they find, which makes their Calumet not 
much unlike Mercury } s Wand, or that Staff Ambas- 
sadors did formerly carry when they went to treat 
of Peace. They sheath that Reed into the neck of 
Birds they call Hilars, which are as big as our Geese, 
and spotted with Black and White ; or else of a sort 
of Ducks who make their Nests upon Trees, tho' Water 
be their ordinary Element, and whose Feathers are 
of many different Colours. However, every Nation 
adorns the Calumet as they think according to their 
own Genius and the Birds they have in their Country. 

" A Pipe such as I have describ'd it, is a Pass and 

1 " A New Discovery," etc., chapter xxiy., pp. 93, 94. London, 1698. 



THE CALUMET. 



387 



safe Conduct amongst all the Allies of the Nation 
who has given it; and in all Embassies, the Ambas- 
sadors cany that Calumet as the Symbol of Peace, 
which is always respected ; for the Savages are gener- 
ally persuaded that a great Misfortune would befal 
'em if they violated the Publick Faith of the Calumet, 
All their Enterprises, Declarations of War, or Conclu- 
sion of Peace, as well as all the rest of their Ceremo- 
nies are Sealed, if I may be permitted to say so, with 
this Calumet. They fill that Pipe with the best To- 
bacco they have, and then present it to those with 
whom they have concluded any great Affair, and smoak 
out of the same after them. I had certainly perish' d 
in my Voyage, had it not been for this Calumet or 
Pipe." 

In Father Dablon's "Relation of the Voyages, Dis. 
coveries, and Death of Father James Marquette," we 
have an interesting description both of the calumet 
and of the dance celebrated in its honor. I adopt the 
translation of Mr. John Gilmary Shea : 1 "It now re- 
mains for me to speak of the calumet, than which there 
is nothing among them more mysterious or more es- 
teemed. Men do not pay to the crowns and sceptrea 
of kings the honor they pay to it ; it seems to be the 
god of peace and war, the arbiter of life and death. 
Carry it about you and show it, and you can march 
fearlessly amid enemies who even in the heat of battle 
lay down their arms when it is shown. Hence the 
Ilinois gave me one to serve as my safeguard amid 
all the nations that I had to pass on my voyage. 
There is a calumet for peace and one for war, distin- 
guished only by the color of the feathers with which 

1 " Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley," etc., p. 34, et seq. 
New York, 1852. 



388 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

they are adorned, red being the sign of war. They 
use them also for settling disputes, strengthening alli- 
ances, and speaking to strangers. It is made of a 
polished red stone, like marble, so pierced that one end 
serves to hold the tobacco while the other is fastened 
on>the stem, which is a stick two feet long-, as thick as 
a common cane, and pierced in the middle ; it is orna- 
mented with the head and neck of different birds of 
beautiful plumage ; they also acid large feathers of red, 
green, and other colors, with which it is all covered. 
They esteem it particularly because they regard it as 
the calumet of the sun ; and, in fact, they present it to 
him to smoke, when they wish to obtain calm, or rain, 
or fair weather. They scruple to bathe at the begin- 
ning of summer, or to eat new fruits, till they have 
danced it. They do it thus : — The Calumet Dance, 
which is very famous among these Indians, is performed 
only for important matters, sometimes to strengthen a 
peace or to assemble for some great war ; at other times 
for a public rejoicing; sometimes they do this honor to 
a nation who is invited to be present ; sometimes they 
use it to receive some important personage as if they 
wished to give him the entertainment of a ball or 
comedy. In winter the ceremony is performed in a 
cabin, in summer in the open fields. They select a 
place surrounded with trees, so as to be sheltered 
beneath their foliage against the hekt of the sun. In 
the middle of the space they spread out a large party- 
colored mat of rushes; this serves as a carpet, on which 
to place with honor the god of the one who gives the 
dance ; for every one has his own god, or manitou, as 
they call it, which is a snake, a bird or something of 
the kind, which they have dreamed in their sleep, and 
in which they put all their trust for the success of their 



THE CALUMET DANCE. 



389 



wars, fishing and hunts. Near this rnanitou, and at its 
right, they put the calumet in honor of which the feast is 
given, making around about it a kind of trophy, spread- 
ing there the arms used by the warriors of these tribes, 
namely the war-club, bow, hatchet, quiver and arrows. 
Things being thus arranged, and the hour for dancing 
having arrived, those who are to sing, take the most 
honorable place under the foliage. They are the men 
and the women who have the finest voices, and who 
accord perfectly. The spectators then come and take 
their places around under the branches ; but each one 
on arriving must salute the rnanitou, which he does 
by inhaling the smoke, and then puffing it from his 
mouth npon it, as if offering incense. Each one goes 
first, and takes the calumet respectfully, and, support- 
ing it with both hands, makes it dance in cadence, 
suiting himself to the air of the song ; he makes it go 
through various figures, sometimes showing it to the 
whole assembly by turning it from side to side. 

" After this, he who is to begin the dance appears 
in the midst of the assembly, and goes first ; sometimes 
he presents it to the sun, as if he wished it to smoke ; 
sometimes he inclines it to the earth ; and, at other 
times he spreads its wings as if for it to fly ; at other 
times, he approaches it to the mouths of the spectators 
for them to smoke, the whole in cadence. This is the 
first scene of the ballet. 

" The second consists in a combat, to the sound of a 
kind of drum, which succeeds the songs, or rather joins 
them, harmonizing quite well. The dancer beckons to 
some brave to come and take the arms on the mat, and 
challenges him to fight to the sound of the drums ; the 
other approaches, takes his bow and arrow, and begins 
a duel against the dancer who has no defence but the 



390 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



calumet. This spectacle is very pleasing, especially as 
it is always done in time, for one attacks, the other 
defends ; one strikes, the other parries ; one flies, the 
othes pursues ; then he who fled faces and puts his 
enemy to night. This is all done so well, with meas- 
ured steps and the regular sound of voices and drums, 
that it might pass for a very pretty opening of a ballet 
in France. 

" The third scene consists of a speech delivered by 
the holder of the calumet, for, the combat being ended 
without bloodshed, he relates the battles he was in, 
the victories he has gained ; he names the nations, the 
places, the captives he has taken, and as a reward, he 
who presides at the dance presents him with a beauti- 
ful beaver robe, or something else, which he receives, 
and then he presents the calumet to another, who 
hands it to a third, and so to all the rest, till all hav- 
ing done their duty, the presiding chief presents the 
calumet itself to the nation, invited to this ceremony 
in token of the eternal peace which shall reign between 
the two tribes. 

"The following is one of the songs which they are 
accustomed to sing ; they give it a certain expression, 
not easily represented by notes, yet in this all its grace 
consists : 

" 1 Ninahani, ninahani, ninahani, 

Naniongo.' " 

The calumet of peace was frequently adorned with 
the white .feathers of the bald eagle. He who bore it 
passed freely, and without fear of bodily harm, wher- 
ever he pleased ; because this pipe — held sacred by all 
the tribes — rendered the person of him who carried it 
— be he chief, ambassador, friend, enemy, or stranger — 



CALUMETS. 



391 



inviolable. Red being the color of war, Loskiel 1 tells 
us that in making peace or settling alliances, the red 
calumet was " daubed over with white clay or chalk." 

By the same author we are informed that if two 
Indian nations entered into a treaty of alliance, a pipe 
of peace was exchanged between them, which was then 
called the pipe of covenant. It was carefully preserved 
and generally lighted in council whenever any thing oc- 
curred appertaining to the alliance. 2 Then each mem- 
ber smoked a little out of it. This reminded them in 
the most impressive manner of the covenant- and the 
time of its establishment. The greatest care was be- 
stowed upon the construction and ornamentation of the 
stems of the calumets and medicine-pipes. No incon- 
siderable official dignity attached to the bearers of 
them, and their preservation was a matter of earnest 
solicitude. When M. DTberville sought his first inter- 
view with the Indians of Florida, he was received by 
their chiefs smoking the calumet and singing the song 
of peace. M. Penicaut 3 thus describes the pipe used 
on this occasion: "The calumet is a stick about a yard 
in length, or a hollow cane, ornamented with the feath- 
ers of the paroquet, birds of prey, and of the eagle. 
These feathers, arranged around the stick, resemble 
somewhat the fans used by French ladies. At the 
end of this stick is a pipe, to which the name of calu- 
met is given." 

From Father Charlevoix 4 we borrow the following 

o 

1 "History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North 
America," part 1, p. 156. London, 1*794. 

2 " History of the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., part 1, page 15S. 
London, 1794. 

3 " Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida," etc., by B. F. French. New 
Series, p. 38. New York, 1869. 

4 "Voyage to North America," etc., vol. i., pp. 180, 181. Dublin, 1766. 



392 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

interesting account of the character, uses, and impor- 
tance of the calumet anions; the North American In- 
dians : " The Calumet is not less sacred anions; these 
People than the Necklaces of Porcelain ; if you "be- 
lieve them, it is derived from Heaven, for they say it 
is a Present which was made them by the Sun. It is 
mora in Use with the Nations of the South and West, 
than those of the North and East, and it is oftener 
used for Peace than for War. Calumet is a Norman 
word, which signifies Heed, and the Calumet of the 
Savages is properly the Tube of a Pipe ; but they 
comprehend under this Name the Pipe also, as well as 
its Tube. In the Calumet made for Ceremony, the 
Tube is very long, the Bowl of the Pipe is commonly 
made of a Kind of reddish Marble, very easy to work, 
and which is found in the Country of the Ajouez, be- 
yond the Mississippi, The Tube is of a light Wood 
painted of different Colours, aud adorned with the 
Heads, Tails and Feathers of the finest Birds, which is 
in all Appearance merely for Ornament. The Custom 
is to smoke in the Calumet when you accept it, and 
perhaps there is no Instance where the Agreement has 
been violated which was made by this Acceptation. 
The Savages are at least persuaded that the Great 
Spirit would not leave such a Breach of Faith unpun- 
ished. If in the midst of a Battle the Enemy presents 
a Calumet, it is allowable to refuse it, but if they re- 
ceive it, they must instantly lay down their Arms. 
There are Calumets for every Kind of Treaty. In 
Trade, when they have agreed upon the Exchange, 
they present a Calumet to confirm it, which renders it 
in some Manner sacred. When it concerns War, not 
only the Tube, but the Feathers also that adorn it are 
red. Sometimes they are only set on one Side ; and 



CALUMETS. 



393 



they say that according to the Manner in which the 
Feathers are disposed, they immediately know what 
Nation it is that presents it ; and whom they intend to 
attack. There is scarce any Room to doubt but that 
the Savages in making those smoke in the Calumet 
with whom they would trade or treat intend to take 
the Sun for Witness, and in some Measure for a Guar- 
antee of their Treaties ; for they never fail to blow 
the Smoke towards the Planet." Overlooking or else 
disregarding the current tradition that the pipe was 
the direct gift of the Great Spirit delivered at first 
with specific injunctions and to be used on all impor- 
tant occasions with becoming solemnity, and always 
with the greatest good faith, our author is of opinion 
that the Indians " having found by Experience that the 
Smoke of their Tobacco draws Vapours from the Brain, 
makes the Head clearer, rouses the Spirits and makes 
us fitter to treat of Affairs," for this reason introduced 
its use into their councils ; and that " after having 
gravely deliberated and taken their Resolution they 
thought they could never find a Symbol fitter to put 
a Seal to their Determinations, or any Pledge more 
capable of confirming the Execution of them than the 
Instrument which had so much Share in their Delibera- 
tions. ... To smoke in the same Pipe therefore in 
Token of Alliance is the same Thing as to drink in the 
same Cup, as has been practised at all Times by many 
Nations." 

When Columbus was upon the coast of Cuba he 
beheld several of the natives going about with fire- 
brands in their hands, and certain dried herbs which 
they rolled up in a leaf, and lighting one end put the 
other in their mouths and continued inhaling and 
puffing out the smoke. A roll of this kind they called 



394 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



a tobacco, a name since transferred to the plant of 
which the rolls were made. The Spaniards, although 
prepared to meet with wonders, were struck with as- 
tonishment at this singular and apparently nauseous 
indulgence. 1 

In his chapter upon the nations and tongues of 
Florida, Cabeca de Vaca states that the natives every- 
where " produce stupefaction with a smoke, and for 
that they will give whatever they possess." 2 This al- 
lusion — brief and vao;ue although it be — has reference 
to the use of tobacco, and assures us emphatically both 
of the fondness of the Indians for that weed, and of 
the extravagant degree in which they subjected them- 
selves to its narcotic influences. 

One of the oldest references to Indian pipes is con- 
tained in the " Brevis Narratio " of Le Moyne de Mor- 
gues. Plate xx. represents various methods of cur- 
ing the sick. An Indian is seated, smoking a pipe. A 
woman offers him some tobacco-leaves. The text is as 
follows : " Quandam etiam plants habent cujus nomen 
excidit, Brasiliani Petem, Hispani Tap ago appellant : 
hujus folia probe siccata laxiori tubuli parti imponunt, 
eorum incensorum fumum angustiore tubnli parte ori 
admota attrahunt tarn valide, ut per os & nares illis 
egrediatur, & eadem opera abunde humores eliciat.' 1 
This passage may be translated thus : " They have also 
a certain plant whose name I have forgotten — the Bra- 
zilians call it Petum, the Spaniards Tapaco — whose 
well-dried leaves they place in the wider portion of a 
tube. Having ignited these, they apply the narrower 
part of the tube to the mouth and draw out the fume 

1 Irving's "Life and Voyages of Columbus," vol. i., p. 184. New York, 1849 — 
quoting from "Navarrete," tome i., p. 51. 

3 " Relation " of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca, translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 138. New York, 1871. 



PIPES. TOBACCO. 



305 



so vigorously that it escapes through the mouth and 
nostrils, and thus removes much humidity." 

We have also, in the first volume of De Bry, an- 
other representation of an Indian pipe. It is not un- 
like the short clay-pipe of the present day, so much in 
vogue among the Irish laborers. Beverly, in his " His- 
tory of the Present State of Virginia," has reproduced 
this illustration. 1 

The illustration which faces page 7 of the third 
"book contains two representations of the pipe of peace ; 
and Father Hennejjin, in the frontispiece to his " New 
Discovery," figures a naked Indian holding in his 
hands the plumed calumet. Carver 2 has furnished us 
with a drawing of the pipe of peace. 

In the early narratives smoking is alluded to rath- 
er as a curative process or public ceremony, than as a 
matter of habit or enjoyment among the natives. 
The ignorance of the times and the novelty of the 
custom furnish plausible excuse for the mistake. 

In his " Briefe and True Report of the New-found 
Land of Virginia," 3 Hariot thus quaintly describes " an 
herbe which is sowed apart by itselfe, and is called by 
the inhabitants Uppowoc : In the West Indies it hath 
diuers names according to the seuerall places and 
countries where it groweth and is vsed ; The Spaniardes 
generally call it Tobacco. The leaues thereof being 
dried and brought into powder, they vse to take the 
fume or smoke thereof by sucking it through pipes 
made of claie, into their stomacke and heade; from 
whence it purgeth superfluous fleame and other grosse 
humors, openeth all the pores and passages of the 

1 See Tab. 10, book iii., p. 17. London, 1705. 

2 " Travels," etc., p. 296. London, 1118. 

3 Page 16. Francoforti ad Mcenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 



396 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



body : by which meanes the vse thereof not only pre- 
serueth the body from obstructios, but also if any be 
so that they haue not beene of too long continuance, 
in short time breaketk them : wherby their bodies 
are notably preserued in health, and know not many 
greeuous diseases, wherewithall wee in England are 
oftentimes afflicted. This Uppowoc is of so precious 
estimation amongest them that they thinke their gods 
are maruelously delighted therewith ; Whereupon 
sometime they make hallowed fires, and cast some of 
the pouder therein for a sacrifice : being in a storme 
uppon the waters, to pacifie their gods, they cast some 
vp into the aire and into the water ; so a weare for 
fish being newly set vp, they cast some therein, and 
into the aire ; also after an escape of danger they cast 
some into the aire likewise ; but all done with strange 
gestures, stamping, sometime dauncing, clapping of 
hands, holding vp of hands, and staring vp into the 
heauens, vttering therewithal, and chattering strange 
words and noises." 

In the voyage of Sir Francis Drake, it is mentioned 
that some of the North American Indians " brought a 
little basket made of rushes, and filled with an herbe 
which they called Tobali ; " and Drake afterward adds : 
" They came now the second time to us, bringing with 
them as before had been done, feathers and bags of 
Tobali for presents, or rather indeed for sacrifices, upon 
this persuasion that we were gods." 1 Admitting the 
devotional, propitiatory, religious, political, medicinal, 
and social uses to which the pipe, in its various forms, 
was dedicated ; conceding the divine origin claimed 
both for it and tobacco, and granting that around 
them clustered superstitions and ceremonies unique in 

1 Quoted in Stevens' " Flint Chips," pp. 318, 319. Londo::, 1870. 



MAXUFACTUEE OF PIPES. 



397 



their character and powerful in their influences, it is 
nevertheless true that among the North American (and 
particularly the Southern) Indians, smoking constituted, 
from the earliest times, a sensual enjoyment. Among 
their personal effects a pipe was frequently, if not 
always, reckoned; and the narcotic influences of to- 
bacco were sought after with an avidity engendered 
only by confirmed habit. 

The Choctaws raised tobacco to such an extent 
that they sometimes sold it to the traders. When 
using it for smoking, they mixed it with the leaves of 
two species of the cariaria, or of the liquidamba/r 
styracifiua. The pipe was in common use among 
them, and in some shape or other was the symbol of 
peace, friendship, and social conversation. The first 
civility offered by the Muscogees to a stranger was a 
pipe, and this, when accepted, was followed by u a dish 
of venison and homany." 1 Speaking of the manufac- 
ture of pipes by the Southern Indians, Mr. Adair 2 
affirms that " they make beautiful stone pipes ; and 
the Cheerake the best of any of the Indians : for their 
mountainous country contains many different sorts and 
colours of soils proper for such uses. They easily form 
them with their tomohawks, and afterward finish them 
in any desired form with their knives ; the pipes being 
of a very soft quality till they are smoked with and 
used to fire, when they become quite hard. They are 
often a full span long, and the bowls are about half 
as large again as those of our English pipes. The fore- 
part of each commonly runs out with a sharp peak, two 
or three fingers broad, and a quarter of an inch thick. 

1 "A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida," etc., by Captain 
Bernard Eomans. Xew York, l77-">. 

2 "History of the American Indians," etc., pp. 423, 424. London, 1775. 



398 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

On both sides of the bowl, lengthwise, they cnt sev- 
eral pictures with a great deal of skill and labour; 
such as a buffalo and a panther on the opposite sides 
of the bowl ; a rabbit and a fox ; and, very often, a 
man and a woman puris naturalibus. Their sculpture 
cannot much be commended for its modesty. The 
savages work so slow, that one of their artists is two 
months at a pipe with his knife, before he finishes it ; 
indeed, as before observed, they are great enemies to 
profuse sweating, and are never in a hurry about a 
good thing. The stems are commonly made of soft 
wood about two feet long, and an inch thick, cut into 
four squares, each scooped till they join very near the 
hollow of the stem ; the beaus always hollow the 
squares, except a little at each corner, to hold them 
together, to which they fasten a parcel of bell-buttons, 
different sorts of fine feathers, and several small bat- 
tered pieces of copper kettles hammered round, deer- 
skin thongs, and a red painted scalp : this is a boast- 
ing, valuable and superlative ornament. According to 
their standard, such a pipe constitutes the possessor a 
grand beau. They so accurately carve or paint hiero- 
glyphic characters on the stem, that all the war actions 
and the tribe of the owner, with a great many circum- 
stances of things, are fully delineated." 

When Lieutenant Tiinberlake, in 1761, was pre- 
sented to the Cherokees he was complimented with 
many professions of friendship and a string of beads. 
The pipe-dance was celebrated in his honor. The bowl 
of the pipe used on this occasion " was of red stone, 
curiously cut with a knife." 

He saw other pijDes made of black stone, and some 
manufactured from " the same earth they make their 
pots with, but beautifully diversified. The stem is 



MANUFACTURE OF PIPES. 



300 



about three feet long, finely adorned with porcupine 
quills, dyed feathers, deer's hair, and such like gaudy 
trifles." Having smoked the peace-calumet, he adds, 
" I was almost suffocated with the pipes presented me 
on every hand, which I dared not to decline. They 
mio\ht amount to about 170 or 180; which made me 
so sick that I could not stir for several hours." 1 

Lawson informs us that anions: the Carolina In- 
dians the women were addicted to smoking. u They 
have pipes," says he, " whose heads are cut out of 
stone, and will hold an ounce of tobacco, and some 
much less." The same author perpetuates the fact 
that by these Southern Indians tobacco-pipes were 
manufactured of clay with the express object of trans- 
porting them into distant regions and there exchanging 
them with other Indians for raw skins, etc. 2 Shortly 
after their primal intercourse with the whites, the red- 
men, in many localities, appear to have adopted the 
shape of the European pipe, as being more convenient 
than that formerly in vogue with them. As a matter 
of history it may be stated that the common clay pipe 
of commerce was, immediately upon its introduction, 
eagerly sought after by the Indians ; and thus it came 
to pass that those who were visited by the traders, or 
who enjoyed facile communication with the colonists, 
speedily abandoned the general manufacture of pipes, 
retaining, however, their calumets, and perpetuating 
the different ceremonies, uses, and traditions with 
which they were so intimately associated. 

In the olden time the Indian evidently laid great 
store by his pipe. For its construction the choicest 
material was often selected. This he collected not m- 



1 " Memoirs," etc., pp. 88, 39. London, 1765. 

2 "History of Carolina," pp. 55, 338. Raleigh reprint, 1S60. 



400 ANTIQUITIES t)F THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

frequently at a great remove from his home, and in 
fashioning and polishing the bowl days and months 
of labor and skill were consumed. Upon the stem, 
also, the ingenuity and taste of the owner were ex- 
hausted. The presence of stone pipes in mounds at a 
distance of sometimes several hundred miles from the 
locality whence the material of which they were manu- 
factured could have been procured, fully attests the 
fact that a trade must have existed among the abo- 
rigines in these highly-esteemed articles. It has been 
more than hinted by at least one person whose state- 
ment is entitled to every belief, that among the Chero- 
kees, dwelling in the mountains, there existed certain 
artists whose professed occupation was the manufac- 
ture of large stone pipes, which were by them trans- 
ported to the coast and there bartered away in exchange 
for articles of use and ornament, foreign to, and highly 
esteemed among, the members of their own tribe. It 
will be readily observed that, in selecting materials 
for their stone pipes, the Indians chose such varieties 
as were best calculated to withstand the continued ac- 
tion of heat. This was undoubtedly the result of act- 
ual experiment. In the absence of cutting and boring 
implements of metal, the construction of a pipe out of 
hard stone was a difficult and tedious undertaking. 
The constant and prolonged attrition required to re- 
duce it to its desired proportions, the labor necessary 
for tracing the ornamental lines and hollowing out the 
bowl and the hole for the insertion of the stem sirnply 
with the aid of some rude flint implement, and the toil 
involved in imparting that degree of polish character- 
istic of so many of the more elaborate pipes, were all 
known to the primitive pi23e-maker. In order, there- 
fore, to avoid, as far as possible, the chances of losing 



CLASSIFICATION OF PIPES. 



401 



Lis pipes at an early day by their cracking under the 
influence of heat, he availed himself of the experience 
of his forefathers, and selected such varieties of stone 
as would best subserve his purpose, and at the same 
time most certainly perpetuate the results of his taste 
and industry. 

The mound-pipes, described by Messrs. Squier and 
Davis, 1 exhibit a degree of art and skill unexcelled by 
any other specimens of ancient pipes fashioned by the 
North American Indians. 

Passing from these general observations we turn to 
an examination of the antique pipes found within the 
present geographical limits of Georgia. From the 
numbers taken from mounds, seen in refuse-piles and 
ploughed up in the fields, it may be confidently as- 
serted that the Indians of this region were generally 
addicted to smoking. From the earliest historic pe- 
riod the pipe was their almost invariable companion, 
and its intimate association with the oldest monu- 
ments proves that there was no epoch when its use was 
unknown to their ancestors. These pipes may appro- 
priately be divided into three classes : First in inter- 
est and in art is the Idol-Pipe. This is rarely seen, and 
only in localities where, in the distant past, dwelt peo- 
ples to all appearances more permanent in their seats 
and tribal organizations, more agricultural in their pur- 
suits, more addicted to the construction of large tumuli, 
and superior in their degree of semi-civilization, to the 
nomads who occupied the soil at the date of European 
colonization. Specimens of such pipes are as infre- 
quent as stone images, and it is probable that they 
should both be referred in their origin to the handi- 

1 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," vol. i. ; "Smithsonian Con- 
tributions to Knowledge," pp. 251-272. Washington, 1848. 
26 



402 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

work and superstition of the primitive men who threw 
up those large mounds which tower along the banks of 
the Etowah and lift their imposing forms from out the 
level of several other valleys in Georgia. They are al- 
ways associated, so far as our knowledge extends, with 
the large pentagonal and quadrangular mounds, and 
with those older monuments — be they watch-towers, 
sepulchral tumuli, temples, consecrated spaces, enclosed 
areas, defensive works or play-grounds — of whose age 
and objects the later Indian tribes cherished not even 
a tradition. The best idol-pipes we have seen were 
ploughed up near the base of the pentagonal mound, 
within the enclosure formed by the moat and the 
Etowah. Eiver, upon the plantation of Colonel Lewis 
Tumlin, near Cartersville, Georgia. A description of 
this interesting locality has already been given. Un- 
fortunately, an opportunity for presenting a proper 
account and of ■fi'omrins: these relics is now denied. 
During the summer of 1859, the author enjoyed the 
pleasure of seeing three of these pipes at the residence 
of Colonel Tumlin. Amid the devastations consequent 
upon the invasion of Georgia by the Federal armies, 
in 1864, these, with other valuable relics, were either 
destroyed or carried away by the soldiers. 

Writing from recollection, it may be stated that 
these particular idol-pipes were made, two of them of 
serpentine and the other of mica slate. They varied in 
height from three and a half to five inches, in breadth 
from two and a half to three inches, and in length from 
three to four inches. In each instance a human figure 
was represented in a sitting posture — knees drawn up 
— elbows resting upon the knees, and the extended 
hands presenting and clasping an urn-shaped bowl. 
These bowls were about two inches in diameter, and, 



IDOL-PIPES. 



403 



disguising the sex, rested upon the abdomen and lower 
part of the breast. The head, rising somewhat above 
the level of the top of the bowl, was thrown back- 
ward. The chin and forehead were both retreating ; 
eyes large and upturned — ears prominent. The fore- 
head was low, broad and bald. The hair, collected 
from all sides, was confined at the top of the head, and 
thence falling backward was gathered into a sort of 
knot below. The countenances were decidedly idiotic, 
and yet the devotional idea was forcibly expressed in 
the attitude and general appearance of these rude idol- 
pipes — incense offering to an unseen yet acknowledged 
Deity. To these exhibitions of his skill the primitive 
sculptor had imparted a considerable degree of pol- 
ish. The perforation for the stem passed below the 
shoulders through the back and belly into the bottom 
of the bowl. At its inception it was three-quarters 
of an inch in diameter, gradually lessening as it deep- 
ened, until, at the point where it entered the "bowl, it 
was scarcely a quarter of an inch in width. These 
pipes were obviously very old ; and in all likelihood 
antedated, by an indefinite period of time, the occu- 
pancy of this valley by the Cherokees. So far as re- 
corded observation extends, nothing like them was 
noted in the use or possession of the modern Indians. 
There are at least plausible grounds for believing that 
the ancient peoples who piled up these august tumuli 
along the banks of the Etowah, and departing left be- 
hind them enduring monuments of their combined 
labor for a wonder and an enigma to later tribes, may 
have borrowed some of their ideas of sun-worship, 
idolatry, agriculture, and of art directly or indirectly 
from the Southern cradle of American civilization. 
In the second class we include Calumets and large 



404 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



pipes whose size suggests the impression that they did 
not generally accompany the owner, "but were carried 
only on special occasions, and used when prescribed 
ceremonies of a political, religious, medicinal, or war- 
like character were to be observed. Varying in form 
and weight, such pipes are found both in the fields and 
in mounds. As a general rule, the more remarkable of 
them may be regarded as the public property of the 
tribe ; still, their presence in conical earth-mounds con- 
taining but a single skeleton, would seem to indicate 
that some of them were the private property of noted 
personages — perhaps chiefs and medicine-men. It is 
scarcely probable that the public peace-pipe would 
have been liable to inhumation. Among the most 
curious of this class are the bird-shaped pipes of which 
Figs. 1, 2, and 3, Plate XXIII., may be regarded as in- 
teresting sj^ecimens. The first (Fig. 1) made of ser- 
pentine, is seven inches and a half from the tip of the 
beak to the end of the tail, three inches in height to 
the top of the bowl, and two inches and two-tenths 
in width just in rear of the bow]. The bowl is an 
inch and a half in diameter at the top, circular in 
shape, and an inch and five-eighths in depth. The 
walls of the bowl are three-eighths of an inch in thick- 
ness. The aperture for the stem, commencing under 
the tail, passes longitudinally through the body of the 
pipe until it intersects the bowl at its bottom. At 
its inception this aperture is an inch in diameter, grad- 
ually lessening as it deepens, until at the point where 
it communicates with the bowl it is only a quarter of 
an inch in width. The weight of this pipe is nearly 
two pounds. 

The length of the second (Fig. 2) does not vary a 
quarter of an inch from that of the first. Its weight 



PLateMW. 




AM PfiOro-UTHOGHAPHIC CO.NY.t OSBOffSES PROCESS. 



CALUMETS AXD BIRD-SHAPED PIPES. 



405 



exceeds, however, by rather more than a quarter of a 
pound, and its height is three inches and three-quar- 
ters. The shape of the bowl is elliptical — its walls 
being half an inch thick. In depth this bowl meas- 
ures two inches and a quarter. Its diameters at the 
top, reckoned respectively in the direction of the ma- 
jor and minor axes of the ellipse, are an inch and a 
' half and an inch and three-tenths. The perforation 
for the stem is also elliptical, its greatest and least di- 
ameters beins: six-eighths and five-eighths of an inch. 
This aperture is half an inch in diameter where it en- 
ters the bowl. This pipe is made of serpentine, and, 
like the former, has been carefully polished. 

The third pipe (Fig. 3) is of oolite, of a cream- 
color, and weighs two pounds and a half avoirdupois. 
It is six inches and a half in length, and about four 
inches high. The walls of the bowl are half an inch, 
in thickness, and the bowl — circular in form — possesses 
a diameter of an inch, and three-eighths, and a depth 
of two inches and a half. In rear of the bowl this 
pipe is nearly three inches in thickness. The aperture 
for the stem is rather more than three-quarters of an 
inch in diameter at its inception below the tail, and is 
diminished to half an inch at the point where it enters 
the bowl. While resting upon the flattened beak, 
breast, and clumsily-represented legs, this seems only 
a bird-pipe. If, however, we change the position, 
placing it upon the feet and tail, and turning the bowl 
away from us, this pipe at once assumes an entirely 
different aspect, apparently foreign to its ordinary uses, 
and seems to assert its rio-ht to be classed anions: the 
idol-pipes. This modified view is presented in Fig. 
4, Plate XXIII. This pipe was found in the Chatta- 
hoochee Valley, several miles below the city of Colum- 



406 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

bus. The other two j3ipes were taken from mounds, 
one in Bibb County, and the other in Greene. The 
duck seemed to be the bird which most frequently 
enlisted the imitative powers of the Indians of this 
region. At other times the bear and the cougar, and 
the " human face divine," engaged the skill of the primi- 
tive artist. 

Of the ordinary forms of calumets, Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 
and 9, Plate XXIII., may be regarded as typical. 
Fig. 5 consists of a stone composed of mica and dark 
brown felspar. This pipe is five inches high, nearly 
four inches long, and an inch and a quarter wide at 
the bottom, which is entirely flat, so that the pipe 
readily remains in an upright position. The bowl is 
circular, its diameter at the top being an inch and a 
quarter, and its depth rather more than three inches and 
a half. The walls of the bowl are three-quarters of an 
inch thick. The aperture for the stem is also circu- 
lar, and three-quarters of an inch in diameter at the 
opening. 

Number 6, composed of gneiss, is five inches in 
height, and five inches in length. The bowl is square, 
or very nearly so, the length of each side being about 
an inch and a quarter. Six-tenths of an inch will ex- 
press the average thickness of the walls at the top. 
The bowl is rather more than three inches and three 
quarters in depth. This pipe also readily maintains an 
upright position, being flat at the bottom, which is an 
inch and three-quarters wide. The opening for the 
stem is circular, and, at its beginning, is an inch and a 
quarter in diameter. Fig. 7 represents a very fine 
calumet of steatite, four inches and three-quarters in 
height, four inches and a half in length, and about two 
inches wide. The circular bowl is two inches in 



CALUMETS. 



407 



diameter, and the walls are not less than half an incli 
in thickness. The bottoms of all these pipes are flat, 
and the bowls, with the exception of Fig. 9 (of soap- 
stone), are at right angles with the stem. 

Many of the pipes of this class are made of mica 
slate and soap-stone. The latter material being easily 
worked and generally accessible, seems to have been 
held in especial esteem. Various are the devices and 
ornamentations traced upon the sides and faces of the 
soapstone pipes. Fig. 8, Plate XXIII., furnishes an 
example in point. Upon its bottom the paw of a bear 
is traced. In front are square, circular, elliptical, and 
parallelogrammic figures, and the upper portion and 
sides are ornamented with various incised lines. These 
calumets were taken from mounds and ploughed up in 
the fields. 

Thus far the writer has failed to discover a single 
instance of the use, among the Georgia Indians, in an- 
cient times, of the genuine red pipe stone or Cailinite. 
In the case of the softer stones there are indications 
that the bowls and holes for the stem were made by 
boring with a triangular-shaped implement, probably 
of flint. Upon some of the inner surfaces of these 
openings are annular abrasions, gradually decreasing 
in diameter as the end of the aperture is neared. Cat- 
lin 1 tells us that the Indians of the West shaped the 
bowls of their pipes from a solid stone, not quite as 
hard as marble, with nothing but a knife. " The 
stone," he continues, " which is of a cherry red, admits 
of a beautiful polish, and the Indian makes the hole in 
the bowl of the pipe by drilling into it a hard stick, 
shaped to the desired size, with a quantity of sharp 

1 "Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the Xorth Ameri- 
can Indians," vol. i., seventh edition, p. 234. London, 184S. 



403 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



sand and water kept constantly in the hole, subjecting 
him, therefore, to a very great labour and the necessity 
of much patience." 

In his account of the manners and customs of some 
of the Western Indians, Mr. Hunter 1 writes : " The 
men occasionally amuse themselves with making bowls 
and pipes of clay, for their individual use, which are 
burned as before described. They also make bowls 
and pipes of a kind of indurated bole, and of compact 
sand and limestone which are excavated and reduced 
to form by means of friction with harder substances and 
the intervention of sand and water. They generally 
ornament them with some figure characteristic of the 
owner's name ; as, for instance, with that of a buffalo, 
elk, bear, tortoise, serpent, etc., according to the circum- 
stance or caprice that has given rise to its assumption. 
In the same way they manufacture their large stone 
mortars for reducing corn into fine meal." In the ab- 
sence of all metallic implements, it is probable that 
the Southern Indians gave outward shape to their 
harder pipes mainly by means of attrition. Sharp sand 
and water may have materially assisted them in drilling 
the holes. The drill, in all likelihood, consisted either 
of a piece of hard wood or of cane. As the cavity 
of the bowl narrowed, smaller drills were employed 
until the bottom was reached. Professor Ran, in his 
excellent article upon drilling in stone without metal 
advances the opinion that a piece of cane will form " a 
regular hollow cylinder sufficiently strong to serve as 
a drill." 2 In this belief I fully concur, and am firmly 

1 " Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America," p. 290. 
London, 1823. 

2 Annual .Report of the Board of Kegents of the Smithsonian Institution for 
1868,. p. 399. 



USE OF SOLID AXD HOLLOW DRILLS. 



409 



persuaded that the hard cane (Arundinaria macros- 
perma, Michaux), furnished the Southern Indians, and 
that abundantly, with hollow drills, which, with the 
aid of sharp sand and water, and a liberal expenditure 
of time and labor, would have compassed the perfora- 
tions and hollows we observe in these pipes. Dr. 
Davis informed Professor Ran that a stone pipe, with 
an unfinished hollow partly filled with vegetable mat- 
ter, was sent from Mississippi to the late Dr. Samuel 
G. Morton, of Philadelphia. When subjected to a mi- 
croscopical examination, this vegetable substance ex- 
hibited the fibrous structure of cane, and thus appeared 
to be the remnant of a drill broken off in the bore. 1 
Some of the bowls of the soapstone pipes were evi- 
dently hollowed or dug out with the aid of a sharp- 
pointed flint implement. Instances occur where the 
workman, neglecting to smooth or polish the inner 
surface, has left the marks of his rude incisive instru- 
ment. In many of these pipes the apertures for the 
stems appear unnecessarily large ; and yet, the size of 
these openings, in connection with their flat bottoms, 
furnishes an argument in support of the principal use 
to which we suppose them to have been dedicated. 
In the deliberations of the council-lodge, or upon pub- 
lic occasions, it was important that the decorated stems 
should be long enough to be conveniently passed from 
one to the other, as the chief men sat around, without 
lifting the pipe from the ground upon which it rested. 
To accomplish this object, and also to afford ample op- 
portunity for that labored ornamentation which was 
the pride and boast of the red-men, the stem must 
have been large and long. It will be remembered that 
the office of pipe-stem-carrier was, among many of the 

1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 
1868, p. 399. 



410 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



tribes, invested with no little dignity. Swainp-canes 
furnished ample and convenient material, among the 
Southern Indians, for the facile manufacture of stems 
of any desired size or length. Joints of gradually- 
diminishing diameters could be readily adjusted the 
one into the other. All necessity for perforation was 
avoided, and thus a tapering stem, light and strong, 
could be easily constructed whose larger end would 
fit the aperture in the pipe, while its smaller extrem- 
ity would admirably answer the convenience of the 
smoker. 

The third class includes' the ordinary pipes in 
common use anions: the natives for smoking tobacco 
and other leaves, weeds, and barks, whose narcotic 
properties were well known to them in their primitive 
state. The luxury of smoking from the earliest times 
was recognized by nearly all the American tribes. 
" There is no custom," says Catlin, 1 " more uniformly 
in constant use amongst the poor Indians than that of 
smoking, nor any other more highly valued. His pipe 
is his constant companion through life — his messenger 
of peace ; he pledges his friends through its stem and 
its bowl, and when its care-drowning fumes cease to 
flow, it takes a place with him in his solitary grave, 
with his tomahawk and war-club, companions to his 
long-fancied, 1 mild, and beautiful hunting-grounds.' " 

These common pipes were made both of stone and 
clay, generally of the latter material. They are usually 
of a size capable of being easily transported, and are 
not much heavier than the ordinary pipe of the present 
day. Some are no bigger in the bowl than a thimble. 
Of the stone pipes, Figs. 2 and 6, Plate XXIV., may be 

1 " Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North Ameri- 
can Indians," etc., vol. i., seventh edition, p. 235. London, 1848. 



Plate JUS. 




AM PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO. N.Y.{ OSBomes PROCESS. 



COMMON PIPES OF STONE AND CLAY. 



411 



regarded as fine specimens, perhaps rather more deli- 
cate than those in common use. The pipe represent- 
ed by Fig. 2 was found near the large mound on the 
plantation of Mr. J. H. Nichols, in Nacoochee Valley. 
Made of a hard black stone, it has been formed with 
much regularity and delicacy. The walls of the bowl 
are very thin, scarcely thicker than the sides of a sad. 
dler's thimble. 

The composition of the clay pipes is precisely the 
same as that used by the Indians of this region in the 
manufacture of their pottery, red and blue clay mixed 
with powdered shells or fine gravel. 

Figs. 4 and 7, Plate XXIV., represent two pipes 
of this description taken from earth-mounds on the 
Ocmulgee River, not far from Macon; while those 
delineated in Figs. 3 and 5, Plate XXIV., were found in 
shell-mounds on the Colonel's Island. Fragments of 
pipes of this composition are not infrequent, and attest 
their general use among the ancient inhabitants of this 
region. Perfect specimens are rarely to be obtained. 
The custom of burning the dead was, at some time 
or other, maintained to a considerable extent on the 
Southern Atlantic coast. As a direct consequence, in 
all tumuli where cremation occurred, only fragments of 
pipes may now be found. From one small mound of 
this character the writer obtained parts of five clay 
pipes which had been broken in the funeral-fires. 
Hearne describes a custom among the Chippewas, after 
the shedding of blood, of throwing all their ornaments 
and pipes into a common fire ; and Win slow narrates 
of the Nanohiggansets that they had a house, ordinarily 
frequented by ]3riests, whither at certain times resorted 
all the people and offered their riches to their gods. 
These contributions were cast by the priests into a 



412 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTIIEKN INDIANS. 

great tire made in the middle of that house. 1 Upon 
the sacrificial altars of the mounds of the West, Messrs. 
Squier and Davis found many beautiful pipes cracked 
and broken by fire. It may be that these fragmentary 
clay-pipes from the Georgia mounds, if rightly under- 
stood, testify the sincere affection cherished by the 
living for the dead when, having concluded the last 
funeral rites, they committed to the same fires which 
consumed the bones of the departed, these symbols of 
peace, of comfort, and of friendship. 

Figure 1, Plate XXIV., is a correct delineation of 
a clay pipe found in a grave-mound in Tennessee. 

The modern Cherokees excelled in the manufacture 
of bird and aninial-shaped pipes — many of them large 
and elaborate. The nude human figure in kneeling, 
bending or sitting posture, frequently formed the sub- 
ject of imitation ; and we have seen several pipes of 
this description which, in the language of Adair, could 
not " much be commended for their modesty." 



1 See Wilson's " Prehistoric Man,"' second edition, p. 323. London, 1865. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Idol-Worship among the Southern Indians. — Stone and Terra-Cotta Images. 

The history of idol-worship — from its most de- 
graded expression in the Fetichism of Congo, through 
all its modified forms up to its most elaborate develop- 
ment in the states of ancient Greece and Rome — is 
both curious and interesting. The stocks and stones 
and the senseless images of the unlearned and the base 
have perished, and are passing into oblivion wherever 
the shadows of superstition, beneath which they had 
their being, are dispelled by the light of a superior 
civilization, Even the bulls and beetles of enigmatic 
Egypt — overrun with gods — incurred the sneers of 
Juvenal. Although not a single worshipper be found 
among living men, the divinities of Olympus, the Muses, 
the Graces, the Lares and Penates, the Fates, the Fu- 
ries, and the Satyrs of the classic age, and the sublime 
art which enthroned them on earthly pedestals, still 
live in the domains of literature and taste. They are 
as immortal as the poetry, the imagination, and the 
traditions, whose offspring they were. Beautifully 
has Coleridge testified to the permanency of this art- 
idolatry, and to the influence which its memories still 
exert over the minds of succeeding generations : 



414 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

" The intelligible forms of ancient poets, 
The fair humanities of old religion, 
The Power, the Beauty, and the Majesty 
That had their haunts in dale or piny mountain, 
Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring, 
Or chasms and watery depths; all these have vanished; 
They live no longer in the faith of reason ; 
But still the heart doth need a language ; still 
Doth the old instinct bring back the old names ; 
Spirits or gods that used to share this earth 
With man as with their friend ; and at this day 
'Tis Jupiter who brings whate'er is great, 
And Venus who brings every thing that's fair." 

But it is not permitted us now to linger among 
these deifications of the unseen powers of Nature — 
these wonderful embodiments of the ideal and -the 
beautiful. To humbler and more obscure investis;a- 
tions do our present inquiries lead. 

Mr. Tylor 1 is of the opinion that idols belong to a 
period of transition and of growth. In support of this 
idea, he instances the fact that among races lowest in 
the scale of civilization — such as the Fuegians and 
many of the Indian tribes of North America — we see 
and hear little or nothing of idols, while in Mexico and 
Peru the entire apparatus of temples, idols, priests, and 
sacrifices, obtains in a complex and elaborate form. A 
belief in the existence of a Supreme Being is wellnigh 
universal among men, and the absence of all religious 
superstitions and of a conception of the immortality 
of the soul, is the emphatic sign of the most absolute 
degradation. The presence of idols among barbarians 
may be therefore regarded as denoting not only the 
entity of a religious idea, but also the cooperation of 



1 " Researches into the Earl) 7 History of Mankind," etc., second edition, p. 
112. London, 1870. 



IDOL-WOESIIIP. 



415 



something like art and imagination to impart definite 
shape and personality to vague conceptions of superior 
beings. 

Sympathizing with the views of Mr. Tylor, Sir 
John Lubbock 1 writes : " The worship of idols charac- 
terizes a somewhat higher stage of human develop- 
ment. We find no traces of it among the lowest races 
of men ; and Lafitau says truly : ' On peut dire en 
general que le grand nombre des peuples sauvages ira 
point d'idoles.' The error of regarding Idolatry as the 
general religion of low races, has no doubt mainly 
arisen from confusing the Idol and the Fetich. Fetich- 
ism, however, is an attack on the Deity ; Idolatry is an 
act of submission to him ; rude, no doubt, but yet 
humble. Hence, Fetichism and Idolatry are not only 
different, but opposite, so that the one could not be 
developed directly out of the other. We must, there- 
fore, expect to find between them, as indeed we do, a 
stage of religion without either the one or the other." 

However true it may be that idol- worship indicates 
a development of the religious idea as contrasted with 
its non-existence among peoples who give evidence 
either of no religious emotions whatever, or of super- 
stitions so degraded that they do not rise above Fetich- 
ism, certain it is that a devotion which, i^norino; the 

7 7 O ~ 

intervention of idols, recognizes the existence of a 
Supreme Being, a Great Spirit, or of two controlling 
divinities — the one of good and the other of evil — is 
still more elevated and expansive in its character. So 
also is that system of worship which deifies the sun 
and moon, and cherishes fire as an object of adoration 
because of its supposed direct emanation from a divine 



1 " The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man," p. 225. 
London, 1870. 



416 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

source. The religion of the Southern Indians was, in 
some respects, not unlike that attributed by Tacitus to 
the ancient Germans : " Caste rum nec colli b ere parietr 
bus deos neque in ullam humani oris speciem assimulare, 
ex masniitudine caelestium arbitrantur. Lucos ac ne- 
mora consecrant, deoruinque nominibus appellant secre- 
tum illud quod sola reverentia vident." 1 

Both the sun and moon were, among many tribes, 
regarded with absolute veneration ; and certain seasons 
were set apart for special religious observances. Speak- 
ing generally, it may be stated that they recognized 
one great and good Spirit as the creator of all — the 
author of life, and light, and heat — the dispenser of 
rain, the provider of game, and the source of all devel- 
opment in plant and animal. Him they sought to pro- 
pitiate on all important occasions, whether of war, the 
chase, or of husbandry. Subordinate to this great 
first cause, they reckoned other spirits, good and evil, 
and with them their "priests, conjurers, and medicine- 
men were commissioned to treat. With the malign 
influences of the evil one — whether exerted in the form 
of disease, or faint-hearteclness, or blight upon the zea 
— they were ever contending. Extravagant as were 
their traditions and superstitions with regard to their 
national or tribal origins, there was always incorporated 
some memory which perpetuated the primal presence 
and power of this Great Spirit. His intervention was 
admitted in the first strong wind, great fire, or dense 
smoke, or in the opening of some vast cave from which 
his children issued forth to possess the green earth he 
had made. Despite their curious and degraded re- 
ligious notions, there can be no doubt but that many 



1 C. Cornelii Taciti Opera omnia, ad fidem eJitionis Orellianae," torn, ii., p. 
235. Oxonii, 1851. 



GEORGIA TRIBES NOT IDOL- WORSHIPPERS. 41 7 



of the tribes, realizing the presence of a soul or spirit 
in the breast of man, and appreciating the operation 
of natural laws, attained unto a conception not only 
of the immortality of that spirit, but also of the fact 
that in a future state good or evil fortune would betide 
the translated according to his conduct in this world. 

That the Georgia tribes were not idol-worshippers 
— in the ordinary acceptation of that term — and did 
not fashion or reverence images at the period of our 
earliest acquaintance with them, may be confidently 
affirmed. 

Speaking of the Indians who resided in the vicinity 
of Savannah when General Oglethorpe established 
the colony of Georgia beneath the pines which then 
crowned Yamacraw Bluff, the Reverend Mr. Bolzius 1 
states : " They have some Religion, believing a Su- 
preme Being, which they call Sotolycate (literally 
translated, He who sitteth Above), who is in all Places ; 
though they would not teach us the Word by which 
they express the Name of God in their Language. 
They believe that from the Supreme Being comes 
every Thing, especially Wisdom. They use no Cere- 
monies, nor outward religious Exercises, except at a 
Solemn Festival, held once a Year. They worship no 
Idols ; however they sing some songs about the ancient 
Heroes." 

Equally emphatic is the testimony of Mr. Bartram : 2 
" These Indians are by no means idolaters, unless their 
puffing the tobacco smoke towards the sun, and rejoic- 
ing at the appearance of the new moon, may be so 

1 An Extract of the Journals of Mr. Commissary Von Reck and of the Rev- 
erend Mr. Bolzius, p. 36. London, 1734. 

2 " Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florid; 1 ," 
etc., pp. 495, 496. London, 1*792. 

• 27 



418 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKJS" INDIANS. 



termed. So far from idolatry are they, that they have 
no images amongst them, nor any religions rite or cere- 
mony that I could perceive ; hut adore the Great Spirit, 
the giver and taker away of the breath of life, with 
the most profound and respectful homage. They be- 
lieve in a future state where the spirit exists, which 
they call the world of spirits, where they enjoy differ- 
ent degrees of tranquillity or comfort, agreeably to 
their life spent here ; a person who in his life has been 
an industrious hunter, provided well for his family, an 
intrepid and active warrior, just, upright, and who has 
done all the good he could, will, they say, in the world 
of s|3irits, live in a warm, pleasant country, where are 
expansive, green, flowery savannas and high forests, 
watered with rivers of pure waters, replenished with 
deer and every species of game ; a serene, unclouded, 
and peaceful sky ; in short, where there is fullness of 
pleasure, uninterrupted." 

Mr. Adair 1 is no less jjositive in his recorded obser- 
vations on this point : " But these Indian Americans 
pay their religious devoir to Loak-Islito Jioollo-Aha, 
' the great, beneficent, supreme, holy spirit of fire,' who 
resides (as they think) above the clouds, and on earth 
also, with unpolluted people. He is with them the 
sole author of warmth, light, and of all animal and 
vegetable life. They do not pay the least perceivable 
adoration to any images, or to dead persons ; neither 
to the celestial luminaries, nor. evil spirits, nor any 
created being whatsoever. They are utter strangers 
to all the gestures practised by the pagans in their re- 
ligious rites. They kiss no idols ; nor, if they were 
placed out of their reach, would they kiss their Lands 
in token of reverence and a willing obedience. . . . 



1 " History of the American Indians," etc., pp. 19, 22. London, 1775. 



IMAGES. 



419 



They pay no religious worship to stocks or stones 
after the manner of the old Eastern pagans ; neither 
do they worship any kind of images whatsoever. . . . 

" I never heard that any of our North American In- 
dians had images of any kind. There is a carved 
human statue of wood, to which, however, they pay 
no religious homage. It belongs to the head war-town 
of the Upper Muskohge country, and seems to have 
been originally designed to perpetuate the memory of 
some distinguished hero who deserved well of his 
country ; for, when their cusseena, or bitter black 
drink, is about to be drank in the synedrion, they fre- 
quently, on common occasions, will bring it there, and 
honour it with the first conch-shell-full, by the hand of 
the chief religious attendant : and then they return it 
to its former place. It is observable that the same 
beloved waiter, or holy attendant, and his coadjutant, 
equally observe the same ceremony to any person of 
reputed merit in that quadrangular place. When I 
past that way, circumstances did not allow me to 
view this singular figure ; but I am assured by several 
of the traders, who have frequently seen it, that the 
carving is modest, and very neatly finished, not un- 
worthy of a modern civilized artist." The same author 
assures us that he has never seen the worship of the 
Priapus indulged in by the natives with whom he was 
acquainted. 

Referring to the Cherokees, Lieutenant Timber- 
lake 1 says : " As to religion, every one is at liberty to 
think for himself ; whence flows a diversity of opinions 
amongst those that do think, but the major part do 
not give themselves that trouble. They generally 
concur, however, in the belief of one superior Being 

1 "Memoirs, 1 ' etc., pp. 63-65. London, 1765. 



420 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 



who made theni and governs all tilings, and. are there- 
fore never discontent at any misfortune, because they 
say the Man above would have it so. They believe in 
a reward and punishment, as may be evinced by their 
answer to Mr. Martin, who, having preached Scripture 
till both his audience and he were heartily tired, was 
told at last, that they knew very well that if they 
were good they should go up ; if bad, down ; that 
he could tell no more ; that he had long plagued 
them with what they no ways understood, and that 
they desired him to depart the country. ... They 
have few religious ceremonies or stated times of gen- 
eral worship : the green-corn dance seems to be the 
principal, which is, as I Lave been told, performed in a 
very solemn manner in a large square before the town- 
house door : the motion here is very slow, and the song 
in which they offer thanks to God for the corn he has 
sent them, far from impleading." 

When questioned as to the origin of the new fire, 
and of the Boos-ke-tau, Efau Haujo, 1 the great Medal 
Chief of Took-au-bat-che, responded that he had been 
taught from his infancy to believe that there is an 
E-sau-ge-tuh E-mis-see (Master of Breath) who gave 
these customs to the Indians as necessary and suited 
to them ; and that an observance of them entitled the 
red-men to his care and protection both in war and 
seasons of difficulty. 

When asked whether the Creeks believed in a 
future existence, he replied : " The old notion among 
us is that when we die the spirit (po-yau-fic-chau) goes 
the way the sun goes, to the west, and there joins its 
family and friends who went before it." To the in- 



1 Hawkins' "Sketch of the Creek Country." Collections of the Georgia 
Historical Society, vol. iii., part 1, p. 80. 



NOTIONS REGARDING A SUPREME BEING. 421 



quiry, " Do the reel people believe in a fntnre state of 
rewards and punishments ? " he answered : " We have 
an opinion that those who behaved well, are taken 
under the care of E-sau-ge-tuh E-mis-see and assisted ; 
and that those who have behaved ill, are left there to 
shift for themselves ; and that there is no other punish- 
ment. 1 ' 

During a conversation which occurred between 
Tomo-chi-chi and General Oglethorpe about prayer, 
the aged Mico of the Yamacraws said that the Indians 
never prayed to God but left it to Him to do what He 
thought best for them : " That the asking for any par- 
ticular blessing looked to him like directing God ; and 
if so, that it must be a very wicked thing. That for 
his part he thought everything that happened in the 
world was as it should be ; that God of Himself would 
do for every one what was consistent with the good of 
the whole ; and that our duty to Him was to be con- 
tent with whatever happened in general, and thankful 
for all the good that happened in particular." 1 

In his " Philosophico-historico-hydi'ogeography of 
South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida," De Brahm 2 
says that the Indians of this region entertained a no- 
tion of immortality and of a future state wherein they 
expected to enjoy large hunting-grounds well stocked 
with deer, and also an apprehension of spirits. " The 
Indians have also a very scant knowledge of a Divine 
Being, which knowledge, or rather notion, extends no 
farther than that they believe he is good : the Chera- 
kees call him (Hiauequo), the great man, whom the 

^pence's " Anecdotes," p. 318. London, 1S20. Jones' " Historical Sketch 
of Tomo-chi-chi," p. 105. Albany, 1868. 

2 " Documents connected svith the History of South Carolina, edited by Plowden 
Charles, Jennett "Weston, and printed for private distribution only," pp. 221, 222. 
London, 1856. 



422 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

Catabaws call (Rivet), overseer; but they pay no man- 
ner of adoration to him, nor anything existing ; nor 
have they any ceremony at all than to extinguish all 
their fires once a year in July, at the time when the 
Indian corn (maize) is in its milk, which they squeeze 
out by beating and straining ; than boile that milk by 
a fire new caught from electrifation, which they per- 
form with two green sticks rubd with great velocity a 
cross each other until they are lighted ; when this milk 
is boiled to a consistency, they let it cool, than form it 
into little cakes which they fry in bear's fat, and are 
(whilst warm) a delicious eating ; with them they 
keep feasting three clays. To this season they postpone 
all elections, promotions, and their king's coronations." 

" Their Religion," upon the authority of Mr. Ash, 1 
" chiefly consists in the Adoration of the Sun and 
Moon : At the Aj>pearance of the New Moon I have 
observed them with open extended Arms, then folded, 
with inclined Bodies, to make their Adorations with 
much Ardency and Passion." 

If we may credit the narrative of Jonathan Dicken- 
son, 2 a sort of Sabianism existed among some of the 
Florida tribes, and Pitchlynn once remarked : " From 
all I have seen and can understand of the Indians who 
once inhabited the portions of country covered by the 
Southern States of the Union, they appear to have 
been originally worshippers of the sun. The Chahta 
when he has greatly misbehaved, utters these ejacula- 
tions : When the sun forsakes a man he will do things 
he never thought to do! The sun is turned against 
me, therefore have I come to this." 3 The Fidalgo of 

1 " Carolina," etc., by T. A., Gent., p. 36. London, 1682. 

2 " God's Protecting Providence," etc., third edition, p. 13, et aliter. Phila- 
delphia, 1720. 

3 " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. note 3. New York, 1871. 



WOODEN STATUES. 



423 



Elvas asserts that the Indians of Florida worshipped 
the devil, and made sacrifices of the blood and bodies 
of their people whenever his satanic majesty suggested 
that he was athirst. It was to escape such oblation 
that Juan Ortiz, warned by the Indian girl, fled by 
night to Mococo. 1 Cabeca de Vaca mentions " gourds 
bored with holes and having pebbles in them," which 
were used by the Indians in their dances, and were 
supposed to possess special virtue because they were 
heaven-descended." 2 Elsewhere in the Spanish narra- 
tives do we read of wooden images of birds ; but, so 
far as we now remember, no account is given of a sin- 
gle idol as an object of adoration among the aborigines. 
At Talomeco, De Soto found a large temple or mauso- 
leum, at whose entrance were gigantic statues of wood, 
carved with considerable skill, the largest of which 
was twelve feet high. They were armed with various 
weapons, and " stood in threatening attitudes, with fero- 
cious looks." The interior of the temple was decorated 
with statues of various shapes and sizes. There was 
also a great profusion of conch s and different kinds 
of sea and river shells. It does not appear, however, 
that these images were objects of religious veneration 
or positive worship. Like the " carved human statue 
of wood " in the head war-town of the upper Muskohge 
country, described by Adair, they seem rather to have 
been the effigies of heroes, the embodiments of brave 
memories, the symbols of tribal pomp and power. 

Lawson tells us that at the corn-dances anion 2; the 
Carolina Indians — the one when the harvest is ended, 
to return thanks to the good spirit for the fruits of the 

1 " Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto," etc., translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith, p. 31. New York, 1866. 

8u Kelation of Alvar Nufiez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 142. New York, 1871. 



424 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

earth — the other in the spring to invoke blessings upon 
the seed to be sown — the old men, in order to encour- 
age the young men to labor stoutly in planting their 
maize, set up a sort of idol in the field, attired in the 
customary habit of an Indian, with strings of wampum 
about its neck. This image — guarded by the king and 
old men, who pay profound respect to it — the young 
ones are not permitted to approach. By the old men 
the young men are told that this image " is some 
famous Indian warrior that died a great while ago, 
and now is come amongst them to see if they will 
work well, which, if they do, he will go to the good 
spirit and speak to him to send them plenty of corn," 
and make them " expert hunters and mighty war- 
riors." 1 Commenting U23on the absurdities of their 
superstitions, our author asserts it to be impossible to 
give a true description of their religion : "1 2 have 
known them," says he, " amongst their idols and dead 
kings in their Quiogozon for several days, where I 
could never get admittance to see what they were do- 
ing, though I was at great friendship with the king 
and great men: but all my persuasions availed me 
nothing, neither were any, but the king, with the con- 
jurer, and some few old men, in that house ; as for the 
young men and chiefest numbers of the Indians, they 
were kept as ignorant of what the elders were doing, 
as myself. They all believe .... that there are two 
spirits ; the one good, the other bad. The good one 
they reckon to be the author and maker of every 
thing, and say that it is he that gives them the fruits 
of the earth, and has taught them to hunt, fish, and be 
wise enough to overpower the beasts of the wilderness, 

1 "History of Carolina," pp. 285, 286. Reprint. Raleigh, 1860. 

2 Idem, p. 342. 



ANCIENT GODS OF THE VIRGINIA INDIANS. 425 

and all other creatures that they may be assistant and 
beneficial to man." They declare also that the bad spirit 
lives apart from the good, and torments men with sick- 
ness, disappointments, losses, hunger, and all the mis- 
fortunes incident to human life. In the immortality 
of man they believe, and have a notion of certain re- 
wards and punishments in another world. 

Beverly 1 furnishes an account of a surreptitious 
visit which he paid to a Quioccosan, or house of reli- 
gious worship, used by the Virginia Indians. In a 
mat he there found what he took to be a disjointed 
idol — a rude affair, scarcely justifying the elaborate 
representation offered in the accompanying plate. He 
also assures us that these peoples had altars and places 
of sacrifice. To the evil spirit burnt-offerings were 
made, and it is more than probable that on some occa- 
sions young children were immolated. 

Treating of the religious belief and worship of the 
Virginia Indians, the author of the " Admiranda Nar- 
ratio " 2 says : " Multos Deos credunt, quos Montoac 
appellant, diuersorum tamen generum & ordinum : 
unum solum primarium & Magnum Deum qui fuerit 
ab seterno. Is (ipsis afferentibus) mundum conditurus, 
initio creauit alios deos primarii ordinis, ut essent tam- 
quam media & instrumenta, ipsi subseruientia cum ad 
creationem, turn ad gubernationem : deinde Solem, 
Lunam & Stellas tamquam Semi-Deos & instrumenta 
alterius ordinis praacipui. Dicunt aquas primum om- 
nium esse factas, ex quibus Dii omnes creaturas visi- 
biles & invisibiles condiderunt. . . . 

" Omnes Deos humanam naturam habere putant, 

1 "History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chap. viii. London, 1705. 

2 " Admiranda Narratio, fida tamen, de commodis et incolarum ritibns Virgi- 
nia?," et cast.., pp. 26, 27. Francoforti ad Moenum. Anno 1590. 



426 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTITEKN INDIANS. 

ea de causa imaginibus humanse formae illos exprimunt, 
eosque Kewasowok appellant, unicus Kewas est dic- 
tus. I] lis proprias aedes sine tenxpla dicant, quae 
Machicomuck nominat, in quib, sint precationes, can- 
tus & per niultos dies oblationes ad ipsoru Deos. In 
quibusdani templis nos unicuni Kewas obseruauimus, 
in aliis binos, aliquando tres. Vulgus etiam pro Diis 
habet. 

" Aniinse immortalitatem el credunt, eam statim 
atque a corpore soluta est transferri secudum opera 
quae fecit, vel ad Deorum sedes ad perpetuani felicita- 
tem fruendam, vel ad ingentem fossam seu scrobem 
(quam in extremis mundi finibus procul ab ipsis versus 
occidentem sitis esse censent) ad perpetuum ignem : 
euni locum ipsi Popogtjsso appellant." 

In plate xxi., De Bry presents us with a sketch 
of the idol Kiwasa seated in its temple. The illus- 
tration is accompanied by the following explanatory 
remarks : " Idolumhabent huius re^ionis incolse, Kiwasa 
appellatuni, e ligneo trunco elaboratum, quatuor pedes 
altum, cuius caput Floridae incolarum capita refert : 
facies carneo colore depicta est, pectus albo, reliquum 
corpus nigro, crura etiam pictura alba variegata : e 
collo torques pendent spkaerulis albis constantes, qui- 
bus intermixtse sunt, alias teretes ex sere, magis ab illis 
aestimato, quam aurum vel argentum. Est illud idolum 
in templo oppidi Secota repositum tarn quam custos 
Regiorum cadauerum. Bina interdum habent in tem- 
plis hujusmodi idola, nonnunquam tria, non plura ; 
quae cum obscuro loco sint reposita, horrenda ap- 
parent." 

The following plate (xxii.) introduces us to this 
idol Kiwasa, seated in a sepulchre of the kings, and 
guarding the repose of the royal dead. 



IDOL— WORSHIP. 



427 



The religion of the Florida tribes is dismissed with 
the followmo; brief notice : 1 " Nullani Dei habent noti- 
tiam, neque ullani religionem : quod illis conspicuum 
est, veluti Sol & Luna, illis Deus est. Saerificos ha- 
bent, quibus valde fidunt : magni enini sunt magi, arioli, 
& daamonum invocatores. Funguntur etiam ii sacrifici 
medicorum & chirurgorum munere ; ejus rei causa 
semper circumferunt saccum herbis &> medicamentis 
plenum, ad segros curandos, qui plerumque venerea lue 
laborant : nam feminarum & virginum, quas solis filias 
nuncupant, amoribus sunt admodum dediti." 

In plate viii. of this " Brevis Narratio," we are in- 
formed that the Indians venerated as an idol the col- 
umn which Ribault had placed upon a mound to mark 
the limit of the French empire in the New World. 
To this stone they offered the finest fruits, roots, corn, 
vessels filled with perfumed oils, and bows and arrows. 
The column itself was encircled from top to bottom 
with wreaths of fiowers and branches of choicest trees. 

In plate xxxv. we are made acquainted with the 
ceremonies attendant upon the annual offering of a 
stag to the sun. 

Of all the Southern tribes, however, the Natchez 
were probably most addicted to the worship of idols. 
Pere le Petit 2 says : " The Natchez have a temple filled 
with idols. These idols are different figures of men 
and women for which they have the deepest venera- 
tion." In another passage he is more explicit : " Their 
idols are images of men and women made of stone and 
baked clay, heads and tails of extraordinary serpents, 

1 " Brevis Narratio eorum quae in Florida," etc., pp. 3, 4. Francoforti ad Moe- 
num. Anno 1591. 

5 Letters Ed. et Cur. iv., 261, quoted by Dr. Briuton, in the Historical Magazine, 
vol. ix., p. 300. 



428 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 

stuffed owls, pieces of crystal and the jaw-bones of 
great fishes." 

Subsequently, when Father Charlevoix 1 visited this 
temple, its glory had departed— its stone benches were 
vacant, its idols gone, its altar deserted, and but little 
left to denote the religious uses to which it had been 
dedicated save the triangular fire watched by the soli- 
tary keeper and slowly burning in honor of the sun. 
By an old Taenca Indian the Chevalier Tonti 2 was in- 
formed that the natives of that region worshipped the 
sun and had temples, altars, and priests — "that in 
the temple there was a fire which burnt perpetually 
as the proper emblem of the Sun." To the moon, at 
certain seasons, oblations were made. Of the temple, 
the Chevalier has left us the following description : 
" The structure of it was exactly the same with that 
of the Prince's house. As to the out-side it. is encom- 
passed with a great high Wall, the space betwixt that 
and the Temple forming a kind of Court where People 
may walk. On the top of the Wall are several Pikes 
to be seen, upon which are stuck the Heads of their own 
most notorious Criminals, or of their Enemies. On 
the top of the Frontispiece there is a great Knob raised, 
all covered round with Hair, and above that an heap 
of Scalps in form of a Trophy. 

" The inside of the Temple is only a JVave, painted 
on all sides, at top with all sorts of Figures ; in the 
midst of it is an Hearth instead of an Altar, upon 
which there is continually three great Billets burning, 
standing up on end ; and two Priests drest in White 
Vestments are ever looking after it to make up the Fire 

1 "Voyage to North America," vol. ii.,p. 192, et seq. Dublin, 1766. 

2 "Account of Monsieur de la Salle's Last Expedition," etc., pp. 91, 94. Lon- 
don, 1698. 



TEMPLE OF THE NATCHEZ. 



429 



and supply it. It is round this that all the People 
come to say their Prayers, with strange kind of Hum- 
rnings. The Prayers are three times a Day ; at Sun- 
rise, at Noon, and at Sun-set. They made me take no- 
tice of a sort of Closet cut out of the Wall, the inside 
of which was very fine; I could see only the Roof of 
it, on the top of which there hung a couple of spread 
Eagles which look'd towards the Sun. I wanted to 
go into it ; but they told me that it was the Taber- 
nacle of their God, and that it was permitted to none 
but their High Priest to go into it. And I was told 
that this was the Repository of their Wealth and Treas- 
ures ; as Pearls, Gold and Silver, precious Stones, and 
some Goods that came out of Europe, which they had 
from their neighbours." 

This sun-worship, with its attendant religious cere- 
monies, was not confined to the tribes who congregated 
along the banks of the Mississippi, but existed also 
among the Georgia and Florida Indians. Tradition 
points to a country west of the Mississippi as the orig- 
inal habitat of at least some of the nations composing 
the Creek Confederacy. We know that some of the 
Natchez, abandoning their former seats, joined the 
Creeks, and it is entirely probable that in doing so they 
brought with them their peculiar religious ceremonies, 
and perpetuated their observance among their new 
neighbors. Possibly this change of residence may ac- 
count for the introduction of at least some idols or 
images within the limits of Georgia. 

Without further pursuing this inquiry into the re- 
corded observations of the early writers who have en- 
deavored to inform us with regard to the religion of 
the Southern Indians, it will be perceived that, while 
we have thus far failed to note any emphatic account 



430 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



declaring the existence of idol-worship among the 
Georgia tribes, we are certified of the fact that idols 
were seen in the possession of coterminous nations, and 
that they were held in superstitions veneration and 
regarded, in some measure at least, as objects of devo- 
tion. It does appear, however, that they occupied, in 
the esteem of the natives, a position far inferior to 
that conceded to the sun or to the Great Spirit, and 
that they constituted only a sort of religious machinery 
in the hands of kings, priests, conjurers, and old men, 
with which to dignify temples, supplement certain 
sacred festivals, and operate upon the fears and credu- 
lity of the more ignorant and unthinking masses. One 
is tempted to regard them rather as conjurers' images, 
as the private property of priests, as the likenesses of 
famous dead, and as the potent charms of medicine- 
men, than as the generally acknowledged embodiments 
of the person and presence of unseen yet recognized 
divinities. 

Although Bolzius, Bartram, Adair, and others, 
deny either positively or inferentially the existence of 
idols or images within the limits then occupied by the 
Georgia Indians, subsequent investigations prove by 
the discovered presence of the images themselves, that 
at some time or other idol-worship of some sort was 
here practised. The ornamented posts, the wooden 
images, and the questionable figures of men, birds, and 
animals sketched upon the white walls of the Creek 
houses — if any religious significance they possessed — 
have long since perished. Next in the order of du- 
rability are small images formed of burnt clay and 
modelled after the similitude of birds and animals, 
and of man. (See Plate XXV.) These occur in 
various parts of the State, and vary in height from 




J_ 
2 . 



AM. PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO NY.\ OSBORNES PROCESS) 



CLAY AND STONE IMAGES. 



431 



three to seven inches. Those which represent the 
human figure are little more than rude terra-cotta dolls 
clumsily fashioned. The owl, the wild-cat, and the 
sun, were favorite subjects for imitation at the hands 
of the primitive artists. So readily could they have 
been made, and so little care was generally bestowed 
upon their construction, that it may well be questioned 
whether they amounted to much more than playthings 
for children. It may be, however, that in the reper- 
tory of the priest, the conjurer, and the medicine-man, 
they possessed greater dignity and were designed for 
more important purposes. 

In a previous chapter we have described several 
interesting idol-pipes, and have suggested that they 
were in all likelihood intimately associated with the 
religious ceremonies of the aborigines. Whether they 
should properly be classed with the simulacra which 
we now proceed to consider, we do not confidently 
affirm or deny. So far as the writer's information ex- 
tends, comparatively few stone idols have been found 
in Georgia. These occurred in the upper portions of 
the State, and chiefly in the valley of the Etowah. 

In an old Indian field in Dirt-Town Valley, in 
Chattooga County, some years since, was ploughed up 
what may be termed an idol-sanctuary. It was made 
of a cube of limestone six inches each way. The 
upper portion or roof consisted of a quadrangular 
pyramid, with a base six inches square, terminating in 
an apex four inches high, thus giving to the entire ob- 
ject an altitude of ten inches. In one face was an aper- 
ture or doorway, arched at the top, extending almost 
from the bottom of the structure nearly to the base of 
the pyramid-shaped top. The interior of this shrine had 
been carefully excavated, so that its sides and bottom 



432 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



were not more than half an inch in thickness. In front 
of this arched doorway, and against the opposite wall, 
a little image was seated upon a pedestal. Only the 
countenance was visible, the figure being concealed by 
drapery. On either side was a pedestal similar in form 
to that upon which the image sat, and about half the 
size. In the walls to the right and left of the idol a 
window had been cut much smaller than, but similar in 
outline to, the doorway. The whole affair had been 
carved out of a solid block of limestone-rock. 

In 1860 a stone idol was found a few miles from 
Catoosa Springs. It was about sixteen inches high, 
and represented a male figure in a sitting posture. 

In the possession of Colonel Lewis Tumlin, in 
1859, the writer examined an idol which had been 
ploughed up near the large mound on the Etowah 
River, upon the plantation of that gentleman. It 1 
was made of a coarse dark sandstone, and was twelve 
inches hioh. It consisted of a male figure in a sitting 
posture. The knees were drawn up almost upon a 
level with the chin, the hands resting upon and clasp- 
ing either knee. The chin and forehead were retreat- 
ino\ The hair was gathered into a knot behind. The 
face was upturned and the eyes were angular. Unfor- 
tunately, this image was lost or destroyed amid the deso- 
lations consequent upon Sherman's march through 
Georgia in 1864, but its place has been supplied by 
another recently found in the same neighborhood. It 
was ploughed up on Colonel Tumlin's plantation, 
near the base of the large tumulus 2 located within the 
area formed by the moat and the Etowah River, and 

1 Jones' "Monumental Remains of Georgia," parti, pp. 108,109. Savan- 
nah, 1861. 

2 Ibid., part 1, p. 27, ei seq. Savannah, 1861. 



Ftate IX V7 




AM. PHOTO-UTHOGRAPHICOH Y.i 0S30RHES PROCESS - 



ETOWAH IDOL. 



488 



is certainly the most interesting idol thus far dis- 
covered in this State. The accompanying front, rear, 
and profile views (see Plate XXVI.), afford an intelli- 
gent idea of the peculiarities of this image. It is a 
female figure, in a sitting posture. The legs, however, 
are entirely rudimentary and unformed. Its height is 
fifteen inches and three-quarters, and its weight thirty- 
three and a half pounds. Cut out of a soft talcose 
rock, originally of a grayish hue, it has been in time 
so much discolored that it now presents a ferruginous 
appearance. Below the navel, and enveloping the but- 
tocks and rudimentary thighs, is a hip-dress, orna- 
mented both on the left side and behind by rectangu- 
lar, circular, and irregular lines. The ears are pierced, 
and the head is entirely bald. In the centre of the top 
of the head a hole has been drilled half an inch in 
depth, and five-tenths of an inch in diameter. This 
probably formed the socket in which some head-orna- 
ment was seated. That ornament, whatever it was, 
had fallen out and was lost when the ima^e was found. 
Springing from the back of the head and attached at 
the other end to the back midway between the shoul- 
ders, is a substantial handle by means of which this 
image could have been securely suspended or safely 
transported from place to place. The mammary glands 
are sharply defined and maidenly in their appearance. 
The ears, hand, and navel are rudely formed. The 
impression conveyed is that of a dead, young, flat-head, 
Indian woman. Unfortunately, the left arm has been 
broken off, but otherwise this idol is in a state of 
remarkable preservation. Dr. Berendt and Professor 
Rau — to whom the writer exhibited this iniao;e— con 
curred in opinion that this figure bears little resem- 
blance to objects of the same class found in the more 

28 



434 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

southern parts of this continent. Naked figures are 
rarely seen there, nearly all of them being clothed, 
and, generally, highly ornamented, especially about 
the head, which, in the present instance, is entirely 
bare and even without ear-ornaments. The features 
are more like the North American than the Central 
American Indian, and the remaining hand is fleshier 
than is usually observed among the Central American 
images. The marks on the back and sides also resem- 
ble more closely the North American pictographs or 
rock and stone inscriptions than they do the Central 
American hieroglyphics. We presume, with the lights 
now before us, it must be admitted that this is an 
Indian image, the handiwork of some nomadic tribe 
which possessed this region some time during the by- 
gone centuries, and, in turn, was expelled from the 
occupancy of this beautiful valley by other and later 
representatives of the North American type. We are 
warranted in the assertion that the modern Cherokees 1 
disclaimed all share . in the erection of the mounds in 
whose proximity this idol was found. They even went 
so far as to declare that they possessed not even a 
tradition of the peoples by whom they were made, and 
that their forefathers saw them for the first time in a 
state of completion when they occupied the country. 
They further repudiated the idea that their nation had 
at anytime been addicted either to the manufacture or 
the worship of idols. We may, therefore, safely con- 
clude that this is not a .Cherokee idol, certainly of a 
late date. Where there are no letters, no histories, no 
inscribed monuments, one wave of human life sweeps 
over another and the tradition of to-day is swallowed 

1 Haywood's " Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 226. Nash- 
ville, 1823. 



ETOWAH IDOL. 



435 



up in the equally frail memory of to-morrow. Under 
such circumstances emphatically is it true that "one 
generation passeth. away and another generation com- 
eth ; but the earth abideth forever. There is no re- 
membrance of former things : neither shall there be 
any remembrance of things that are to come with those 
that shall come after." 

We know not how old this Indian population was. 
We cannot even positively assert that it was not au- 
tochthonous. We are ignorant of the distinctive names 
and characteristics of the various hunter-tribes which 
may have succeeded each other during the laj^sed 
ages, in the ownership of this soil. As we look upon 
this rude monument, we are not entirely sure that it is 
emblematic of a past idolatry. It may be the effort of 
some primitive sculptor to perpetuate in stone the form 
and features of some Indian maiden famous in the es- 
teem of her family and tribe. 

Various theories may be suggested, fancied analo- 
gies traced and probable origins conjectured, but, after 
all, the most we can confidently say with regard to the 
antiquity of this relic — curious and ancient as it un- 
doubtedly appears — is that it is seemingly older than 
the handiwork and the superstition of any. Indian tribe 
of which we have any knowledge as resident upon the 
beautiful banks of the Etowah. 

If object of worship it was, this rude stone image, 
outliving the generation by which it was fashioned 
and invested with superhuman attributes, awakened 
from its long sleep of neglect and desuetude, conveys 
to us of the present day a true conception of the igno- 
rance and the superstition of that by-gone age, affords 
physical insight into the condition of the sculptor's art 
at that remote period, and confirms* the past existence 



1 



436 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

of peoples whose names and origin are the subjects 
only of speculation — whose history is perpetuated sim- 
ply by a few archaic relics which, having successfully 
wrestled with the disintegrating influences of time, re- 
main uncrushed by the tread of another and a statelier 
civilization. But it is not alone in Georgia that these 
images are found. Tennessee, above ail her sister 
States, seems to be most prolific of them. In the be- 
ginning of this century, Mr. Jefferson was presented 
with two " Indian busts " which were unearthed by 
some laborers who were excavating along the bank of 
the Cumberland River, near Palmyra. 1 They are 
described thus : " The human form extends to the 
middle of the body, and the figures are nearly of the 
natural size. The lineaments are strongly marked, 
and such as are peculiar to the copper-colored aborigi- 
nal inhabitants of America. It is not known of what 
materials they are made : some are of opinion that they 
have been cut with a chisel or sharp instrument out, of 
stone : others think that they have been moulded or 
shaped of a soft composition, and afterwards baked. 
The substance is extremely hard. It has not been as- 
certained whether they are idols or only images of dis- 
tinguished men. It will be an interesting object of 
research for antiquarians to discover who were the 
ancestors of the present Indians capable of executing 
such a good resemblance of the human head, face, 
neck, and shoulders." 

In his account of the antiquities discovered in some 
of the "Western States, Mr. Caleb Atwater 2 mentions 
two idols, one found in a tumulus near Nashville, 
Tennessee, and the other dug up on the site of an old 

1 Monthly Magazine, or British Register, vol. xxiv., part 1, for 1807, p. .74. 

2 " Archseologia Americana," vol. i., pp. 211, 215. Worcester, Mass., 1820. 



TENNESSEE IMAGES. 



437 



Indian temple in Natchez, Mississippi. The first was 
made of clay, peculiar for its fineness, mixed with gyp- 
sum. The second was of stone. Both are figured in 
the first volume of the "Transactions and Collections 
of the American Antiquarian Soci ety." In the writer's 
collection there is a clay image quite similar in appear- 
ance to Miss Clifford's drawings of the Nashville idol. 
The accompanying notices of antique idols are ex- 
tracted from Mr. Haywood's " Natural and Aboriginal 
History of Tennessee." 

" Upon the top of a mound at Bledsoe's Lick, in 
Sumner County, Tennessee, some years prior to 1823, 
was ploughed up an image made of sandstone. On 
one cheek was a mark resembling a wrinkle passing 
perpendicularly up and down the cheek. On the 
other cheek were two similar marks. The breast was 
that of a female, and prominent. The face was turned 
obliquely up towards the heavens. The palms of the 
hands were turned upwards before the face, and at 
some distance from it, in the same direction that the 
face was. The knees were drawn near together : and 
the feet, with the toes towards the ground, were 
separated wide enough to admit of the body being 
seated between them. The attitude seemed to be that 
of adoration. The head and upper part of the fore- 
head were represented as covered with a cap, or mitre, 
or bonnet ; from the lower part of which came horizon- 
tally a brim, from the extremities of which the cap ex- 
tended upwards conically. The color of the image 
w^as that of a dark infusion of coffee. If the front of 
the image w r ere placed to the east, the countenance — 
obliquely elevated — and the uplifted hands in the same 
direction, would be towards the meridian sun." 1 

1 " Natural and Aborigiual History of Tennessee," etc., by John H.iywooil, pp. 
123, 124. Nashville, 1823. 



438 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Of another image or idol dug up on the farm of 
Mr. McGilliam on Fall Creek, in Wilson County, 
Tennessee, Mr. Haywood furnishes the following de- 
scription : " The figure is cut out of a hard rock, of 
what kind Mr. Kucker could not determine. It was 
designed for a female statue. The le^s were not 
drawn. It only extends a little below the hips. It is 
fifteen inches long and thick in proportion. It has a 
flat head, broad face, a disproportionately long aquiline 
nose, low forehead, thick lips, and short neck. The 
chin and cheek bones are not prominent, but far other- 
wise. On the back of the head is a large projection so 
shaped as to show, perhaps, the manner of tying and 
wearing the hair. The nipples are well represented : 
though the breasts are not sufficiently elevated for a 
female of maturity. The hands are resting on the hips, 
the fingers in front, and the arms a-kimbo. Around 
the back and above the hips are two parallel lines cut, 
as is supposed to represent a zone, or belt. The ears 
project at right angles from the head, with holes 
through them. It was found a few inches beneath 
the surface of the earth. No mounds are near, but 
an extensive burying-ground of apparently great an- 
tiquity." 1 

To the first volume of the "Transactions of the 
American Ethnological Society," 2 Dr. Troost contrib- 
uted drawings of four Tennessee idols. One of them 
is enshrined in a large cassis flammea, the interior 
whorls and columella of which had been removed, and 
the front of the shell cut away so as to permit the en- 
trance and proper location of the image. In these 
simulacra both sexes are represented. These idols are 

1 "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," pp. 162, 163. Nashville, 1823. 

2 Pp. 361, 364. 



TENNESSEE IMAGES. 



489 



made, some of them of sandstone, and others of a mix- 
ture of clay and shells. All are rude in construction. 
In the same volume Mr. Schoolcraft, in an article upon 
the Grave-Creek mound, 1 describes and figures a stone 
idol in a sitting posture, thirteen inches high, which 
was ploughed up on the farm of a Mr; Taylor some 
eight miles south of the Grave-Creek Flats. 

During his recent investigations, Professor Joseph 
Jones obtained from the tumuli and valleys of Tennes- 
see several interesting idols both of stone, and of clay 
mixed with pounded shells. Without extending these 
observations, it may be stated that images of this 
archaic type have been found also in Kentucky, Vir- 
ginia, South and North Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama, 
and Florida. The scope of the present inquiry does 
not lead us to an examination of such as have been ob- 
served in more northern and western localities. The 
worship of the Priapus probably obtained among some 
of the Southern Indian nations. In the collection of 
Dr. Troost were many carefully-carved representations 
in stone of the male organ of generation. They were 
found principally within the present limits of the State 
of Tennessee. But two objects of this sort, so far as 
our observation extends, have been noted among the 
relics of the Georgia tribes, and these were about twelve 
inches long, made of slate. In some parts of Alabama, 
and in Mississippi, similar objects have been exhumed 
from grave-mounds. 

There is another class of objects which commanded 
the attention, and to all appearances^ the veneration 
and perhaps worship of these ancient peoples. A 
stone which from some natural cause assumed the 

1 "Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i., p. 408. New 
York, 1845. 



440 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



shape of a roan or an animal was held in special es- 
teem, and artificial means were sometimes adopted to 
heighten the fancied resemblance. Such objects were 
regarded as fit dwelling-places for some maniton or 
spiritual influence. To Mr. Schoolcraft we are indebt- 
ed for several illustrations — one of which represents 
a natural idol found at the base of a mound in 
South Carolina. 1 From mounds and refuse-piles the 
writer has obtained relics of this description which 
doubtless answered some superstitious purpose in the 
hands of a conjurer, priest, or medicine-man. While 
the early writers discountenance the idea that idol- 
worship existed among the Georgia tribes at the period 
of our first acquaintance with them, remembering the 
recorded testimony with regard to the religious cere- 
monies, superstitions and practices of other and neigh- 
boring nations who were addicted, at least in some 
measure, to this sort of adoration, and appreciating the 
fact that stone idols and clay images have been found 
not only in portions of this State, but also within the 
limits of coterminous States, the conclusion seems irre- 
sistible that at some time or other, and among these 
peoples or those who preceded them in the occupancy 
of this region, something like the worship of idols ob- 
tained. Future and more extended observations may 
enable us more intelligently to comprehend the secrets 
of the past, and then we will be able to modify, con- 
firm, or reject present conjectures. 

1 See Squier's "'Antiquities of the State of New York," etc., pp. 171, 172. 
Buffalo, 1851. 



CHAPTER XX. 



Pottery. 

It lias been truthfully remarked that articles of 
fictile ware are at once the most fragile and the most 
enduring of human monuments. A piece of common 
pottery, liable to be shivered to pieces by a slight 
blow, is more lasting than epitaphs in brass and effigies 
in bronze. These yield to the varying action of the 
weather ; stone crumbles away, ink fades and paper 
decays ; but the earthen vase, deposited in some quiet 
but forgotten receptacle, survives the changes of time 
and, even when broken at the moment of its discovery, 
affords instruction in its fragments. In their power 
of traversing accumulated ages and affording glimpses 
of ancient times and peoples, fictile articles have been 
compared to the fossils of animals and plants which 
reveal to the educated eye the former conditions of our 
globe. 1 

Perhaps nothing of a physical character more clearly 
determines the degree of civilization attained by a na- 
tion than the progress made in the fictile art. In the 
rudest stages of human existence vessels of some sort 
are required for the conveyance of water and the prep- 

1 "Encyclopaedia Britannica," vol. xviii., p. 430, eighth edition. 



442 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

aration of food. Hence, in those remote ages when 
we catch indistinct glimpses of man, as an animal, 
wrestling with the lowest wants of his nature and 
scarce able to defend himself against the inclement 
seasons and the attacks of wild beasts, we find only the 
meanest forms of domestic utensils, such as gourds, 
drinking-cups of conch or horn, bark basins, wooden 
troughs, skin bags, and coarse earthen pots and pans. 
The conformation and composition of such primitive 
pottery indicate the inexperience and awkwardness of 
the artificers, and convey a decided impression of the 
barbarity of the race to which they belonged. As the 
darkness of a half-clad, nomadic existence is gradually 
dispelled by the dawning light of civilization, and men 
begin to emerge from the savage state, the first step in 
this development is marked by a change for the better 
in the ceramic art. The archaic type of pottery is 
abandoned for forms far more graceful and intellectual, 
and the crude clay discarded for material more durable 
and attractive. From its rude beginning to its present 
stage of picturesque and beautiful development, the 
potter's art has always been invested with peculiar 
interest and historic value. It may be regarded as the 
faithful chronicler of man's progress — a fair exponent 
of the degree of his barbarity or civilization, and often 
the recorder of events and periods which would other- 
wise have faded from the recollection of succeeding 
generations. Hieroglyphically impressed upon the sun- 
dried bricks of Egypt are the names of a kingly series 
which, but for these relics, would have irretrievably 
perished. The sites of ancient Mesopotamia and As- 
syria are traced by means of the cuneiform inscriptions 
upon the clay bricks of which their proudest edifices 
were constructed. The Roman bricks have also borne 



HISTOEICAL VALUE OF FICTILE WAEE. 443 

their testimony. Many of them retain the names of 
the consuls of imperial Rome, while others prove that 
the proud nobility of the Eternal City derived their 
revenues from the kilns of their Campanian and Sabine 
farms. 1 

Grecian colonization and its aesthetic influences, 
remarks Professor Wilson, 2 are traced along the shores 
of the Mediterranean and the Euxine by beautiful 
fictile ware and sepulchral pottery. Etruria's history 
is written to a great extent in the same fragile yet en- 
during characters. The footprints of the Roman con- 
queror are clearly defined to the utmost limits of im- 
perial dominion by the like evidence ; and sepulchral 
pottery is frequently the only conclusive proof which 
enables the European ethnologist to discriminate be- 
tween the grave of the intruding conqueror and that of 
the aboriginal occupant of the soil. Apart, therefore, 
from the exquisite beauty of many remains of fictile 
art, which confers on them a high intrinsic value, the 
works of the potter have been minutely studied by the 
archaeologist and are constantly referred to as historical 
evidence of the geographical limits of ancient empires. 

Few peoples, how degraded soever, have failed to 
bequeath some specimens of pottery — crude and mis- 
shapen though they be— to rescue the fact of their 
former existence from utter oblivion. The absence of 
pottery in the Reindeer period in France furnishes a 
decided exception, and affords proof alike of the great 
antiquity of the cave-dwellers of Dordogne and of the 
very low state of their civilization. 3 

In Europe, where prehistoric archaeology may be 



1 Birch's " History of Ancient Pottery." 

8 " Prehistoric Man," p. 342, second edition. London, 1S65. 

3 Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 326, second edition. London, 1S69. 



444 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

divided into four great epochs— the Palaeolithic and 
the Neolithic periods, the Bronze and the Iron ages — 
careful study has been bestowed upon the peculiar 
characteristics of the pottery of each period. The con- 
clusion to which this examination leads is this, that 
while the potter's wheel was probably unknown in 
both the Stone and Bronze epochs, the material of 
which the Stone-age pottery is composed is rougher 
than that which was used during the Bronze period. 
The ornaments of the two periods show, also, says Sir 
John Lubbock, 1 . a great contrast. In the Stone age 
they consist of impressions made by the nail or the fin- 
ger, and sometimes by a cord twisted round the soft 
clay. The lines are all straight, or, if curved, are very 
irregular and badly drawn. In the Bronze age all the 
patterns present in the Stone age are continued, but 
in addition we find circles and spirals ; while imitations 
of animals and plants are characteristic of the Iron 
age. 

In North America, . where we have almost exclu- 
sively a Stone age distinguished by relics more varied 
than those of perhaps any other quarter of the globe, 
the art of pottery attained a considerable degree of per- 
fection. The ornamentation is as diversified and com- 
prehensive as that of all the ancient epochs of Europe 
combined. The manufacture of fictile articles for do- 
mestic use, devotion, and ornament, seems to have been 
carried on by most of the Indian tribes, from time im- 
memorial. The Southern Indians excelled in the 
ceramic art, special care having been bestowed upon 
the selection and preparation of their clays, and no 
little taste displayed both in the shape and ornamenta- 
tion of their vessels. The use of these frail utensils 



1 "Prehistoric Times," p. 16, second edition. London, 1869. 



POTTERY OF THE FLORIDA INDIANS, 



445 



was, however, at an early period superseded by the 
employment of more serviceable articles obtained from 
the whites, and the fabrication of pottery was, with 
but few exceptions, speedily abandoned whenever am- 
ple opportunity was afforded for the purchase of Euro- 
pean copper kettles, iron pots, and tin-ware. This 
fact increases our interest in these perishable relics, 
and causes us to cherish very tenderly all specimens of 
this character. 

At the period of our first acquaintance with the 
Southern Indians, the fabrication and use of earthen 
vessels were very general. The Fidalgo of Elvas 1 pays 
high compliment to the pottery of the region when he 
describes it as " little differing from that of Estrernoz 
or Montemor." He records the circumstance that the 
natives " had great store of walnut oil — clear as butter, 
and of a good taste — and of the honey of bees pre- 
served in pots." 

It would appear from Cabeca de Y-aca's account 2 
that some of the Southern tribes were either ignorant 
or neglectful of the potter's art. Of such he writes : 
" Their method of cooking is so new, that for its 
strangeness, I desire to speak of it ; thus it may be seen 
and remarked how curious and diversified are the con- 
trivances and ingenuity of the human family. Not 
having discovered the use of pipkins to boil what they 
would eat, they fill the half of a large calabash with 
water, and throw on the fire many stones of such as are 
most convenient and readily take the heat. When hot, 
they are taken up with tongs of sticks and dropped into 

1 "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto, ,? etc., translated by Buck- 
ingham Smith, p. 165. Bradford Club Series, number five. New York, 1866. 

2 "Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated from the Spanish by 
Buckingham Smith, p. 161. Xew York, 1ST1. 



446 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 



the calabash, until the water in it boils from the fervor 
of the stones. Then whatever is to be cooked is put 
in, and, until it is done they continue taking ont 
cooled stones and throwing in hot ones. Thus they 
boil their food." In the " Brevis Narratio " 1 of Le 
Moyne de Morgues, we have several illustrations pur- 
porting to exhibit the forms of pottery in general use 
among; the Florida Indians. 

The Chevalier Tonti, in his general description of 
the Louisiana Indians, uses the following language : 
" They have Cellars or rather Holes to preserve their 
Corn, their Wood and other Provisions ; but all their 
Kitchin Utensils consists in some few pieces of Earth- 
en-Ware which they make with Clay, and harden it 
with the Dung of Bulls." 2 

Father Hennepin 3 asserts that before the arrival of 
Europeans in North America " both the Northern and 
Southern Salvages made use of and do to this day use 
Earthen Pots, especially such as have no Commerce 
with the Europeans from whom they may procure 
Kettels and other Moveables." 

During Lieutenant Timberlake's sojourn among 
the Cherokees he observed that they used two sorts of 
clay from which they made excellent vessels capable 
of resisting the greatest heat. At a physic-dance in 
the town-house he saw a clay pot, set on the fire, capa- 
ble of containing twenty gallons. 4 

Speaking of the same Indians Adair 6 asserts that 

1 Plates viiu, xi., xx., xxviii., xxix. Francoforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 
1591. 

s " An Account of Monsieur de la Salle's Last Expedition," etc., p. 12." Lon- 
don, 1698. 

3 " Continuation of the New Discovery of a Vast Country in America," etc., p. 
102. London, 1698. 

4 "Memoirs," etc., pp. 62, 77. London, 1765. 

5 " History of the American Indians," p. 4 London, 1775. 



POTTEEY OF THE LOUISIANA INDIANS. 447 



in his day they made " earthen pots of very different 
sizes so as to contain from two to ten gallons ; large 
pitchers to carry water, bowls, dishes, platters, basons, 
and a prodigious number of other vessels of such anti- 
quated forms as would be tedious to describe and im- 
possible to name. Their method of glazing them is, 
they place them over a large fire of smoky pitch-pine 
which makes them smooth, black and firm. Their 
lands abound with proper clay for that use ; and even 
with porcelain, as has been proved by experiment." 

Loskiel 1 tells us that the Delawares and Iroquois 
had pots and boilers made of clay mixed with 
pounded sea-shells, and burnt so hard that they were 
black throughout ; and Joutel affirms that the Indians 
inhabiting the banks of the Mississippi were very skil- 
ful at making earthen vessels wherein they boiled their 
flesh, or roots, or sagamise. 2 

In commenting upon the customs of the Louisiana 
tribes, Du Pratz 3 writes : " To prepare their maiz for 
food and likewise their venison and game there was 
necessity for dressing them over the fire, and for this 
purpose they bethought themselves of earthen ware 
which is made by the women who not only form the 
vessel, but dig up and mix the clay. In this they are 
tolerable artists: they make kettles of an extraordi- 
nary size, pitchers with a small opening, gallon bottles 
with long necks, pots or pitchers for their bear oil 
which will hold forty pints ; lastly, large and small 
plates in the French fashion. I had some made out 
of curiosity upon the model of my delf ware, which 

1 " History of the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., part 1, p. 54. Lou- 
don, 1794. 

3 " Historical Journal," etc. French's Historical Collection of Louisiana, part 
1, p. 149. New York, 1846. 

3 " History of Louisiana," p. 860. London, 1774. 



448 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

were a very pretty red." The kitchen utensils of the 
Alabama Indians consisted of dishes and pots of 
earthen- ware, and deep wooden dishes. "They made 
cups of calebashes, and spoons of the horns of wild 
oxen, which they cut through the middle and form 
into the proper shape by means of fire." 1 Haywood 2 
mentions the existence in the mounds of Tennessee of 
fragments of pottery composed of clay and pounded 
cockle-shells. 

It was Lawson's impression that the earthen pots 
found buried, and at the foot of banks whence the 
water had washed them, were of a sort different from 
those in use by the Carolina Indians when he so- 
journed among them. He asserts that the ancient 
pottery was "thicker, of another shape and composi- 
tion, and nearly resembled the urns of the ancient 
Romans." 3 

In plate xv. of Hariot's " Virginia," we are advised 
of the method in which the natives seethed "their 
meate in earthen pottes." Says the translator : " Their 
woemen know how to make earthen vessells with 
special Cunninge, and that so large and fine, that our 
potters with thoye wheles can make noe better ; ant 
then Eemoue them from place to place as easelye as 
we can doe our brassen kettles. After they haue set 
them uppon an heape of erthe to stay them from fall- 
inge, they putt wood vnder, which, being kyndled, 
one of them taketh great care that the fyre burne 
equallye Rounde abowt. They or their woemen fill 
the vessel with water, and then putt they in fruite, 
flesh, and fish, and lett all boyle together like a gallie- 



1 Bossu's " Travels through Louisiana," vol. i., p. 224. London, 17*71. 

2 " Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 139. Nashville, 1823. 

3 " History of Carolina," pp. 278, 279. Reprint. Raleigh, 1860. 



MANUFACTURE OF CLAY UTENSILS. 



449 



maufiye, wliicli tlie Spaniarde call olla podrida. 
Then they putte yfc out into disches, and sett before 
the companye, and then they make good cheere to- 
gether." 1 

We conclude these citations in support of the fact 
that the Southern Indians at the time of primal con- 
tact between them and the whites were almost uni- 
versally cognizant of and practising the potter's art, 
by an observation of that intelligent and entertaining 
traveller, William Bartram, 8 to whom we are indebted 
for so much valuable information respecting the Geor*- 
gia tribes in 1773 : "As to mechanic arts or manufac- 
tures, at present they have scarcely any thing worth 
observation, since they are supplied with necessaries, 
conveniences, and even superfluities by the white 
traders. The men perform nothing except erecting 
their mean habitations, forming their canoes, stone 
pipes, tambour, eagle's tail or standard, and some 
other trifling matters ; for war and hunting are their 
principal employments. The women are more vigi- 
lant, and turn their attention to various manual em- 
ployments: they make all their pottery or earthen- 
ware, mocasins, spin and weave the curious belts and 
diadems for men, fabricate lace, fringe, embroider and 
dec'orate their apparel," etc., etc. 

The statement, therefore, is historically correct that 
until, through their intercourse with the early explor- 
ers and first settlers, the Southern Indians became con- 
vinced of the superiority of the copper and iron kettles 
and articles of crockery then introduced and of their 

1 u A Briefe and True Report of the New-found Land of Virginia," etc. Fran- 
coforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 

2 "Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia,*' etc., p. 511. Lon- 
don, 1792. 

29 



450 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

ability to possess them, they adhered to their primi- 
tive manufacture of clay utensils of various forms. 
With the general introduction of these more durable 
articles of European construction dates the decline of 
the ceramic art among the North American tribes. 
That decadence was more or less rapid as the inter- 
course between the races became partially or perma- 
nently established ; and to such an extent has it pro- 
gressed that, in the language of Prof. Eau, at the pres- 
ent time this aboriginal art may be considered as al- 
most if not entirely extinct among the tribes still in- 
habiting the territory of the United States, excepting 
some in New Mexico and Arizona who have not yet 
abandoned the manufacture of earthen-ware. 

In York County, South Carolina, dwell some sixty 
survivors of the once powerful Catawba nation. By 
them the fabrication of fictile articles has not been 
wholly discontinued. This is done, however, rather 
with a view to satisfying, at a good price, the demands 
of strangers who make frequent application for their 
wares, than in perpetuation of the ceramic art as it 
once existed among them. 

The pottery of the Southern Indians is superior to 
that manufactured by Northern tribes. It is more 
varied in form, symmetrical in shape, excellent* in 
composition, and diversified in ornamentation. The 
abundance of choice clay, a climate salubrious the year 
round, the presence of fish and game in plenty, and 
the fact that Nature spontaneously gratified many 
wants — combined with the general dissemination of art 
ideas apparently derived from the Natchez — afforded 
ample leisure and facilities for the careful fabrication 
of fictile ware and tended to develop a degree of taste 
and skill which not infrequently challenges our admira- 



MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 451 

tion. The presence of sherds all over the cultivated 
fields attests the numbers of clay vessels which were 
everywhere in use among the aborigines of Georgia. 
Especially do these fragments abound upon the "sites 
of their villages and at the principal bluffs along the 
coast and water-courses whither, in ancient times, they 
resorted for the purposes of fishing and hunting. The 
refuse-piles are here filled with broken clay utensils 
thrown aside as they perished with the using. They 
form an important element in the debris of the en- 
campment. Seldom are entire vessels found except in 
mounds and graves. Even here it is a difiicult matter 
to secure specimens wholly free from blemish. Friable 
in its character, this pottery was liable to disintegration. 
Under the most favorable circumstances, when securely 
deposited in tumuli, the moisture of the soil and the 
weight of the superincumbent mass of earth in many 
instances caused the burial-urns and cooking-utensils 
to crack or fall to pieces. The sepulchral shell-mounds 
and the dry sandy tumuli of the coast were most con- 
ducive to the preservation of these frail articles. From 
them the best specimens have been taken. 

The material employed by the Georgia Indians in 
the manufacture of their pottery was red, blue, yellow, 
and dark-colored clay. It was often used without 
the admixture of any foreign substance ; but in many 
cases this clay was tempered, mixed and kneaded with 
powdered shells, gravel, or pulverized mica. Experi- 
ence taught these primitive artificers that such a com- 
position imparted greater consistency to the' mass and 
rendered it more capable of resisting the action of fire. 

Sometimes — as in the case of flat-bottomed vessels 
intended as receptacles for pounded maize — this pot- 
tery was only sun-dried, but generally the utensil was 



452 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

subjected to a Hardening process by lire. The appli- 
cation of heat to the interior of the vessel was occa- 
sionally so intense as to cause a partial fusion of the 
inner particles. This pottery appears to have been 
made by hand, although, so accurate are its outlines, 
so homogeneous its composition, and so regular the 
thicknesses of the walls, that we often wonder how it 
could have been so skilfully formed without the aid of 
the potter's wheel. This earthenware was manufac- 
tured by the natives in almost every part of the State. 
Traces of the pits whence they dug clay, are still ex- 
tant. Scattered around are fragments of pottery, 
masses of clay evidently intended for use, and the re- 
mains of former fires. Localities where these potters 
plied their trade may, to this day, be clearly noted on 
the coast, in the valleys of Little-Shoulder-Bone Creek, 
of the Etowah, Oostenaula, and Chattahoochee Rivers, 
and elsewhere. In Bibb and Cass Counties rude clay- 
hearths with elevated sides have been unearthed, 
which, from their form and the quantities of sherds in 
their vicinity, suggest the belief that they were crude 
kilns for baking pottery. Professor Rau, in his interest- 
ing article on " Indian Pottery," furnishes a valuable ac- 
count of some localities on the left bank of Cahokia 
Creek, in the American Bottom, where the manufacture 
of earthen-ware had been carried on by the Cahokia 
Indians. "In some of the Southern States," remark 
Messrs. Squier and Davis, 1 "it is said the kilns in 
which the ancient pottery was baked are now occa- 
sionally to be met with. Some are represented still to 
contain the ware, partially burned, and retaining the 
rinds of the gourds, etc., over which they were mod- 
elled, and which had not been entirely removed by 



1 "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 195. Washington, 1848. 



POTTEKY— KILNS. 



453 



the fire." " In Panola County," says Mr. E. Morris, 
in a private letter, " are found great numbers of what 
are termed pottery -kilns, in which are masses of vitri- 
fied matter frequently in the form of rude bricks meas- 
uring twelve inches in length by ten in breadth." 

In the Etowah Valley— a region of all others in 
Georgia most rich in monuments — ovens, rudely con- 
structed of water- worn stones, have been discovered, 
with circular paved floorings indicating the long-con- 
tinued presence of hot fires. Those which the writer 
examined were in ruins, but seemed to have been 
about five feet in diameter. The impression created 
by these remains and their surroundings was, that 
they were intended for and used as kilns for baking 
pottery. 

Observing for a moment the general characteristics 
of the pottery found in Georgia, we will note that the 
walls or sides of the vessels vary in thickness from the 
eighth to the half of an inch. Some of the largest sort 
are thicker still, their bottoms being reenforced to in- 
sure additional strength. In size there is every varie- 
ty, from the little poculum capable of holding scarce a 
pint, to the large pot or flat-bottomed jar whose con- 
tents may be calculated by the gallon. Most of the 
vessels belonging to what may be termed the archaic 
type, are but slightly ornamented ; many of them not 
at all. The same may be affirmed with regard to the 
coarser jars designed as receptacles for pounded maize, 
bear-oil, walnut-oil, and honey. The rims of not a few 
of the larger vessels curve outward, so as to allow a 
vine or cord to pass round and under the projection, 
and thus enable them to be suspended over the Are. 
Others have strong ears, by means of which suspension 
could have been accomplished with greater facility. 



454 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



Others still lack both curved rim and ears ; and, with 
their rounded bottoms, must have been kept in an up- 
right position through the intervention of clay rings 
placed beneath, or by being bolstered up with stones, 
♦ fagots, or sand. One of the best specimens of ceramic 
art we have seen within the geographical limits of 
Georgia, is the burial-urn represented by Fig. 1, Plate 
XXVII. 

It is fifteen inches and a half in height, nine inches 
in diameter in the widest part, and ten inches and a 
quarter across the top. The graceful outline and gen- 
eral symmetry of this vase arrest our attention. It 
was apparently made with the assistance of a rush or 
wicker basket, as its entire exterior surface is covered 
by impressions left by the rushes or osier-twigs upon 
the clay while in a plastic state. We know that some 
of the North American tribes adopted the custom of 
modelling their vessels in baskets prepared for that 
purpose. Either this method was used in the present 
case, or else the potter, with no little skill and pa- 
tience, imprinted these ornamental lines while the ves- 
sel was still soft, by means of a cord or instrument of 
some sort. The lines are iinpressed, not carved. The 
circular ornamentation — running parallel with and 
half an inch distant from the rim — was doubtless 
made with the end of a hollow reed or bone. The 
hard cane abundant everywhere in the swamps of 
Southern Georgia and generally used by the Indians 
for arrows, might well have been employed for this 
purpose. The interior is quite smooth. This urn was 
fashioned of the clay common to the neighborhood in 
which it was found. In its composition there is an 
admixture of gravel, and, to a limited extent, of pow- 
dered shells. In itself considered, it is a creditable 



Alette HUT. 




AM. PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHIC CO NY., 0S80RKES PROCESS. 1 



BUKIAL-UEN. 



455 



example of the skill of the primitive potter. It pos- 
sesses, however, an individual history which invests it 
with additional interest. 

This burial-urn was found in a small shell-mound 
on the Colonel's Island, 1 in Liberty County. It was in 
an upright position and its rim was about eighteen 
inches below the surface. This little tumulus was evi- 
dently very old; and, although the ploughshare had 
not torn it asunder, the changing seasons and the mer- 
ciless winds and rains had sadly wasted it. But for 
the quantities of stout oyster-shells which entered into 
its composition it would long since have been oblit- 
erated by these disintegrating influences. The remark- 
able state of preservation in which this vase appears 
is accounted for when we are made acquainted with 
the fact that it was guarded or enclosed by two exte- 
rior earthen vessels of ruder construction and thicker 
walls. Covering the top of the outer vessel and 
closely fitting, was a substantial lid or cap of baked 
clay, made for the purpose. The exterior and middle 
receptacles were so much softened and impaired by 
the moisture of the sand and shells that they crumbled 
into fragments in the effort to remove them and could 
not be restored. It was with difficulty that the in- 
nermost urn could be lifted from its position. Expos- 
ure to the sun, however, soon caused it to harden. 
Within this smallest and enclosed vessel, thus pro- 
tected, were the bones of a young child. They had 
wellnigh returned to the mother-dust from which they 

1 In 1*713, William Bartram, while on a visit to this island, observed among 
the shells of a conical mound, and about its centre, the rim of an earthen pot 
which he carefully removed, drawing it out almost whole. " This pot," he says, 
"was curiously wrought all over the outside, representing basket-work, and was 
undoubtedly esteemed a very ingenious performance by the people at the age of 
its construction." — ("Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia," etc., 
p. 6. London, 1792.) 



456 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



sprang. No relics, save these funeral- vases, were 
found in this mound. This fact suggests two thoughts 
— one, that the tumulus was erected solely in honor 
of this infant, and consequently that it must have been 
the offspring of some noted personage of the tribe; 
the other, that it was too young to have come into 
the ownership of any articles except such as must 
have been very perishable in their character. 

Placed here perchance by the wife of the chieftain 
— certainly by an affectionate mother — with the fond 
hope that this clay coffin, in all likelihood her own 
handiwork, would shield the tender form of the babe 
she loved so well from the chilling damp and the re- 
morseless decay of the lonely grave, this funeral-vase 
affords an affecting; illustration of that sincere natural 
attachment which leads even the uncivilized parent to 
wrestle with death for the preservation of her buried 
child. Three other instances of similar inhumations 
have chanced within the writer's observation, all of 
them occurring in mounds on the coast. It will be 
remarked that this sepulchral-urn is not unlike those 
described by Mr. Atwater and figured on pages 227 
and 229 in the first volume of the " Archseolooqa 
Americana." Burial- vases enclosing human bones have 
occasionally been found in the , grave-mounds of Ten- 
nessee, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, and South Caro- 
lina. In ancient Greece it was customary to deposit 
the ashes or bones of the dead in a cinerary of baked 
clay, bronze, or gold, and recent investigations show 
that this method of protecting the dust of the departed 
was not confined to the limits of classic Hellas. The 
vessel (Fig. 2, Plate XXVII.) taken from an earth- 
mound near Sparta, in Hancock County, is fourteen 
inches higdi and rather more than fourteen inches in 




J? /o 



AM PH0T0-UTH06KAPMC CQ SX 1 0S30/TKES PROCESS. 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ANCIENT POTTERY. 



457 



diameter. Near the rim we have a repetition of the 
circular or bead ornamentation noticed on the burial- 
vase. The ornamentation of the entire outer surface 
is so varied and elaborate that we are somewhat at a 
loss to understand precisely how it was done. If this 
pot was moulded in a basket, the pattern of the en- 
closing wicker-work was unusually elaborate and ar- 
tistic. As in the case of the sepulchral urn, all these 
impressions were formed while the clay was still soft. 
There are no indications of the use of a sharp-pointed 
implement as in vessel Number 3, Plate XXV1L, where 
all the lines and figures were carved after the clay had 
become hard. 

Fig. 4, Plate XXVIL, may be regarded as typical 
of a numerous class of flat-bottomed jars designed, as 
has already been intimated, as receptacles for various 
articles, such as pounded maize, bear-oil, walnut-oil, 
honey, etc. It is entirely plain both within and with- 
out, quite smooth, and measures rather more than 
eiodit inches in height and nine inches in diameter. 
The dark clay of which it is composed was tempered 
with powdered shells and mica. 

Figs. 5, 6, and 7, Plate XXVIL, are accurate deline- 
ations of pots with ears, while Fig. 8, in general out- 
line, assimilates very closely to the small iron pot of the 
present day. The addition of legs was by no means 
usual. Figs. 9 and 10 of the same plate acquaint us 
with the shapes of the ordinary clay bowls in common 
use among the primitive peoples of this region. In 
Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXVIII., we observe the forms of 
the wide-necked jars. The vessels delineated in Figs. 
3 and 4, of the same Plate, were taken from an ancient 
burial-ground in the Mississippi Valley, near Shre re- 
port, while those represented by the remaining Figures 



458 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



iti this Plate were found by Professor Joseph Jones, in 
the stone-braves and mounds of Tennessee. Without 
multiplying these examples, the illustrations already 
furnished advise us of the prevailing types of this South- 
ern pottery. All these vessels were taken from grave- 
mounds. Animal-shaped and face-vases occasionally oc- 
cur. Of the latter kind the well-remembered and oft- 
described triune vase is a striking illustration. Pro- 
fessor C. Eau is now preparing a monograph upon face- 
vases which will prove both curious and interesting. 

Upon an examination of this pottery and the many 
sherds which everywhere abound (some of which are 
figured in Plate XXIX.), we are led to believe that 
the ornamentation was compassed in one or the other 
of the following ways : 

I. By modelling the vessel inside of a net- work, 
rush-basket, or frame made of twigs or split cane, or 
within a gourd, or over blocks of wood or forms of 
dried clay. It seems, moreover, from the delicacy of 
some of the impressions, that a sort of cloth must have 
been first spread against the sides of the enclosing- 
basket or framework before the clay was put in and 
pressed against it. Perhaps in some instances the in- 
terior walls of the gourd may have been carved so 
as to leave raised figures and lines upon the vessel 
moulded within it. 

II. By shaping the kneacled clay into the desired 
form, with the hand, leaving the outer surface smooth ; 
and, when the pot was dry, with a sharp flint-flake or 
bone carving straight, curved, and zigzag lines with 
greater or less uniformity according to the care, pa- 
tience, and skill of the artificer. 

III. The circular and semicircular depressions — 
with or without elevated centres — could have been 




AM PHOTO -UTHOGRAPHtC CO N. Y.i OSBORNES PROC£SS. 



VAEI0U3 METHODS OF OEXAMENTATION. 459 

made by means of a hollow reed cut off at or near a 
joint, as might best indicate the artist's present fancy. 
It is not improbable that some of the indentations 
formed while the clay was still in a plastic state, were 
done with the finger-nail, which the Indians, in some 
cases and for certain purposes, permitted to grow very 
long. 1 Lines were impressed with the aid of a thong, 
while the more complicated figures may have been 
perpetuated with the assistance of a wooden or soap- 
stone die in which the desired pattern was cut. Re- 
peated applications of the same die to all the exterior 
portions of the vessel gave a uniform ornamentation. 
The use of several dies of different designs materially 
enhanced the variety. 

IV. Frequently raised mouldings near the rims, and 
elevated ornaments were added while the vessel was 
still soft, and when the adhesion of these new parts 
could be readily compassed. 

V. The sides of the vessels were sometimes beau- 
tified by the insertion of diamond and square-shaped, 
parallelogrammic, and circular pieces of mica and shell. 
Over the edges of these inserted or impressed orna- 
ments the clay was slightly curved, so that when the 
ware was thoroughly dry these pieces of mica and 
shell remained permanently embedded. A beautiful 
drinking-cup ornamented in .this way was unearthed 
by a freshet, which, overflowing the banks of Savannah 
River, cut a channel through an ancient burial-ground 
near the confluence of great Kiokee Creek and that 
stream. 

VI. The ornamentation of this earthen-ware was 
further accomplished by means of red, blue, and black 
pigment. 

1 Lawson's " Carolina," p. 284. Kaleigh reprint, 1S50. 



4(50 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



When completed the newly-formed vessel was 
either exposed in the sun, baked in a kiln or open 
fire, or inverted over burning coals of some hard wood, 
such as oak or hickory, piled up so as to fill as nearly 
as possible the whole interior. In the manner last 
mentioned was the baking process often conducted, 
the bed of coals being at intervals renewed and ar- 
ranged in conical form so as to distribute the heat 
equally to every part of the pot. So intense at times 
was the heat employed, that the vessel glowed and a 
fusion of the particles on the inner surface occurred. 
When sufficiently baked, the vessel was allowed to 
cool gradually, in its hardened condition permanently 
retaining the impressions which had at first been made 
upon its plastic form. 

Upon the manufacture of the ordinary cooking and 
domestic utensils comparatively little labor was ex- 
pended. They were, however, substantially made, and 
answered well, both in shape and durability, the wants 
of this primitive period. From some of the sepulchral 
tumuli and refuse-piles, plates of baked clay, usually 
about six inches long, four inches wide, and half an inch 
thick, have been taken. They were used either as plates 
or rude baking-pans. Clay pans, with numerous holes 
pierced through their bottoms, thereby converting them 
into convenient strainers, have also been found. 

In Cherokee Georgia and Alabama frequent use 
was made of pot-stone or soapstone for the manufac- 
ture of vessels of the largest size. Some of this kind 
have been exhumed fully three feet in diameter and 
eighteen inches deep. The walls were an inch and 
upward in thickness. 1 

1 Professor Joseph Jones has a vessel of this sort in his collection, weighing 
nearly two hundred pounds ; and one was exhumed in Alabama, large enough to 
permit an adult to sit and bathe in it. 



MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 



401 



We here omit a description of images, pipes, beads, 
and other articles of clay, as they have been noticed in 
another connection. 

As the methods adopted by the various American 
nations in the manufacture of their earthen-ware were 
probably quite similar, in addition to the extracts 
already given, it is deemed proper to present the fol- 
lowing accounts by eye-witnesses as throwing addi- 
tional light upon this subject. 

In his history of the manners and customs of sev- 
eral Indian tribes west of the Mississippi, Hunter ob- 
serves : 1 " In manufacturing their pottery for cooking 
and domestic purposes, they collect tough clay, beat it 
into powder, temper it with water, and then spread it 
over blocks of wood which have been formed into 
shapes to suit their convenience or fancy. When suffi- 
ciently dried, they are removed from the moulds, placed 
in proper situations and burned to a hardness suitable 
to their intended uses. Another method practised by 
them is to coat the inner surface of baskets made of 
rushes* or willows, with clay to any required thickness, 
and, when dry, to burn them as above described. 

"In this way they construct large, handsome, and 
tolerably durable ware; though latterly, with such 
tribes as have much intercourse with the whites, it is 
not much used, because of the substitution of cast-iron 
ware in its stead. 

" When these vessels are large, as is the case for the 
manufacture of sugar, they are suspended by grape- 
vines, which, wherever exposed to the fire, are con- 
stantly kept covered with moist clay. 

" Sometimes, however, the rims are made strong and 
project a little inwardly, quite round the vessels, so as 

1 "Memoirs of a Captivity," etc., p. 2S8. London, 182S. 



462 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

to admit of their being sustained by flattened pieces 
of wood, slid underneath these projections and extend- 
ing across their centres." 

The Mandans are reported by Mr. Catlin 1 to have 
fabricated their pottery in the following manner: 
" Earthen dishes or bowls are a familiar part of the 
culinary furniture of every Man dan lodge, and are 
manufactured by the women of this tribe in great 
quantities, and modelled into a thousand forms and 
tastes. They are made by the hands of the women 
from a tough, black clay, and baked in kilns, which 
are made for the purpose, and are nearly equal in hard- 
ness to our own manufacture of pottery ; though they 
have not yet got the art of glazing, which would be to 
them a most valuable secret. They make them so 
strong and serviceable, however, that they hang them 
over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their 
meat in them with perfect success. I have seen some 
few specimens of such manufacture, which have been 
dug up in Indian mounds and tombs in the Sputhern 
and Middle States, placed in our Eastern museums, 
and looked upon as a great wonder, when here this 
novelty is at once done away with, and the whole mys- 
tery ; where women can be seen handling and using 
them by hundreds, and they can be seen every day in 
the summer also, moulding them into many fanciful 
forms and passing them through the kiln where they 
are hardened." 

The most minute account is that furnished by 
Dumont, who, in describing the customs of the Louisi- 
ana Indians, states that, "after having amassed the 
proper kind of clay and carefully cleaned it, the Indian 

1 " Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North Amer- 
ican Indians," etc., vol. i,, p, 116. London, 1848. 



MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 



4f,3 



women take shells which they pound and reduce to a 
fine powder; they mix this powder with the clay, and 
having poured some water on the mass, they knead it 
with their hands and feet and make it into a paste, of 
which they form rolls, six or seven feet long, and of a 
thickness suitable to their purpose. If they intend 
to fashion a plate or a vase, they take hold of one of 
these rolls by the end, and, fixing here with the thumb 
of the left hand the centre of the vessel they are about 
to make, they turn the roll with astonishing quickness 
around this centre, describing a spiral line ; now and 
then they dip their fingers into water and smooth with 
the right hand the inner and outer surface of the vase 
they intend to fashion, which would become ruffled or 
undulated without that manipulation. In this manner 
they make all sorts of earthen vessels, plates, dishes, 
bowls, pots, and jars, some of which hold from forty 
to fifty pints. The burning of this pottery does not 
cause them much trouble. Having dried it in the 
shade, they kindle a large fire, and, when they have a 
sufficient quantity of embers, they clean a space in the 
middle where they deposit their vessels and cover them 
with charcoal. Thus they bake their earth en- ware, 
which can now be exposed to the fire, and possesses as 
much durability as ours. Its solidity is doubtless to 
be attributed to the pulverized shells which the women 
mix with the clay? 1 

The ceramic art is no longer practised by the Indian 
within the limits of Georgia. Upon the removal of 
the Creeks and Cherokees, the last representatives of the 
red race departed from the beautiful valleys, the noble 
mountains, and luxuriant forests of this Empire State 

l Dumont, " Meraoires Historiques sur la Louisiane," totre ii., p. 271, ei seq. 
Paris, 1753. 



464 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



of the South. Even before the establishment of Ogle- 
thorpe's colony at Savannah, there had occurred a by no 
means partial introduction of metallic vessels of Euro- 
pean manufacture. These were furnished by traders 
who swarmed into the Indian country from Carolina 
and the Spanish settlements in Florida. Upon the gen- 
eral distribution of these more durable utensils, the 
fabrication of fictile ware gradually subsided and was 
at last entirely abandoned. To the industry and skill 
'of the Indian women of those early days are we mainly 
indebted for these interesting relics of the past. 

Eoguet 1 advanced the idea that the way in which 
pottery came to be made was this: primitive peoples 
at first daubed with clay such combustible vessels as 
cocoa-nut shells, to protect them from the action of fire. 
It was found before long that the clay itself, when 
hardened, would retain its shape and answer the pur- 
poses of the vessels it was designed to enclose. Thus 
the idea of fictile ware was conceived and from time to 
time developed. The observations of Captain Genne- 
ville and others tend to corroborate this notion ; and 
it may be that the early efforts of the Southern Indians 
in the ceramic art were confined to covering gourds 
with clay so as to use them for culinary purposes. 

Although calabashes were lon^ ao;o abandoned as 
unsuitable for heating water and boiling maize, the 
shape of many of the terra-cotta vessels of an antique 
type would seem to have been suggested by them. 

Aside from the disintegrating influences of time 
and moisture, the casualties of use and accident, the 
operation of inherent decay and the wanton destruction 
of many of these frail vessels at the hands of the care- 

1 See Tylor's " Researches into the Early History of Mankind," etc., second 
edition, p. 273. London, 1870. 



4 



CKEMATION. 



405 



less and the unlearned, the Southern Indians, in observ- 
ance of a custom which obtained amongj some ancient 
tribes, doomed to destruction quantities of their pot- 
tery. It will be remembered that these primitive 
people?, especially along the coast of Georgia, fre- 
quently burned their dead and with them food-vessels, 
drinking-cups, pots, flagons, ornaments, utensils, and 
articles, the property of the deceased. The practice 
of reserving the skeletons until they had accumulated 
sufficiently to warrant a general inhumation was main- 
tained among the Creeks, the Choctaws, and other 
Southern nations within the historic period. It was 
no easy task, as we have already observed, for the 
aborigines, with their limited means, to erect a tumu- 
lus. Hence, by an arrangement of this sort, the com- 
bined labors of the many could be secured in compass- 
.ing the elevation of grave-mounds above the accumu- 
lated dead of village or tribe. Possibly, cremation 
was resorted to in order that the toil of mound-building 
might be diminished. Cremation, however, was by no 
means universal even in districts where the dead were 
frequently burned. Why these funeral customs should 
have thus varied in prescribed localities, we do not 
fully understand. Compared with each other these 
sepulchral tumuli differ materially in their ages, and 
we can only repeat what we have already suggested 
in explanation, that in the history of the nomadic 
peoples who for centuries possessed this region, one 
wave of human life may have swept over the other, 
each perpetuating its peculiar funeral-rites, and leaving 
in silent companionship mound-tombs similar in gen- 
eral/ aspect and yet possessing internal indicia which 
intimate that they are the creations of different hands, 



466 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

the offspring of varying customs — all designed, how- 
ever, to honor the memory of the departed. 

But a few weeks since the writer opened two grave- 
mounds, not more than forty yards apart, in the midst 
of an ancient burial-ground on the Georgia coast. In 
the first, the skeletons had been disposed in an horizon- 
tal j)osition and the smell of fire had not passed upon 
them. In the other, after having been collected in a 
circle twenty feet in diameter, with all their articles 
of property about them, the dead, to the number of 
perhaps thirty, had been consumed in the flames. 
Charred fragments of wood and bone, broken pieces 
of pottery, cracked stone implements, and burnt earth, 
abundantly testified how complete had been the crema- 
tion. Here was a total demolition of numerous clay 
vessels owned by the deceased and given to the flames 
with the skeletons prior to the inhumation. Bushels 
of fragments might have been gathered, but not a 
vessel remained in its entirety to reward the investi- 
gation. 

Upon the burning irvpaL the Greeks cast perfumes 
and oils, but the beautiful vases and the property of 
the deceased were claimed by the living. The South- 
ern Indian gave to one common funeral-flame the 
skeleton, and all the possessions of the departed. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

The Use of Pearls as Ornaments among the Southern Indians. 

In the concession made by the King of Spain to 
Hernando de Soto of the government of Cuba and 
conquest of Florida, with the title of Adelantado, one- 
fifth of all the gold and silver, stones and pearls, won 
in battle or on entering towns, or obtained by barter 
with the Indians, was reserved to the crown. It was 
further stipulated that the "gold and silver, stones, 
pearls, and other things which might be found and 
taken as well in the graves, sepulchres, ocues or temples 
of the Indians as in other places where they were ac- 
customed to offer sacrifices to idols, or in other con- 
cealed religious precincts or buried houses, or in any 
other public place," should be equally divided between 
the king and the party making the discovery. 

From the special mention made of them in this 
royal reservation, it is evident that among the valu- 
able trophies of the expedition precious pearls were 
confidently anticipated. That the Spaniards were not 
entirely disappointed in this expectation the early 
narratives abundantly testify. These relations estab- 
lish the fact — and that beyond all controversy — that 
the use of the pearl as an ornament, among the Indians 



468 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



of Florida and of the South was by no means infre- 
quent. A reference to some of these accounts — afford- 
ing as they do the earliest information we possess on 
this subject — may prove interesting. 

Near the bay of Espiritu Santo, in Florida, the 
followers of De Soto chanced upon the town of an In- 
dian chief — TJcita, by name. His house stood near 
the beach, upon an artificial mound. At the other 
end of the town was a temple, on the top of which 
perched a wooden fowl with gilded eyes. Within 
these eyes, says the historian, were found pearls such 
as the Indians greatly value, piercing them for beads 
and stringing them to wear about their necks and 
wrists. 

"When the Indian queen welcomed the Spanish 
adventurer to the hospitalities of Cutifachiqui, she 
drew from over her head a long string of pearls, and, 
throwing it around his neck, exchanged with him 
gracious words of friendship and courtesy. Observing 
that the Christians valued these pearls, the cacica told 
the governor that if he would order some sepulchres, 
which were in the village, to be searched he would 
find many; and, if he chose to send to those which 
were in the uninhabited towns, he might load all his 
horses with them. The Spaniards did examine and 
rifle of their contents the sepulchres in Cutifachiqui ; 
and, upon the authority of the Fidalgo of Elvas, ob- 
tained from them three hundred and fifty pounds' 
weight of pearls- — some of them formed after the •simili- 
tude of babies and birds. If the truth were known, or 
if an Indian had penned this account, we would be 
assured that De Soto and his companions, in their 
eager quest for treasures, without permission violated 
the graves and plundered the receptacles wherein were 



PEARLS AS ORNAMENTS. 469 

garnered the most costly possessions of the natives. 
As a proof that the Indians did not willingly part with 
these ornaments, but suffered the pillage through fear 
of these strange and wanton men, we are informed that 
when the cacica, whom De Soto compelled to accom- 
pany him with the intention of taking her to Guaxule 
— the farthest limit of her territory — succeeded in mak- 
ing her escape, she was careful to carry back with her 
a cane box filled with unbored pearls, the most precious 
of them all. 

Luys Hernandez de Biedma says that the gov- 
ernor, while at this town, opened a mosque in which 
were interred the chief personages of that country: 
" From it we took a quantity of pearls of the weight 
of as many as six arrobas and a half, or seven, though 
they were injured from lying in the earth, and in the 
adipose substance of the dead." One of the saddest 
losses, in the estimation of the relator, encountered by 
the expedition in the bloody affair at Manilla, was the 
destruction of the pearls which the Spaniards had been 
sedulously collecting during their wanderings in this 
strange land. 

Fontaneda states that at the place where Lucas 
Yasquez went, seed-pearls were found in certain conchs ; 
and that between Havalachi and Ola^ale is a river the 
Indians call Gruasaca-esqui, which means in the Spanish 
language Rio de Cartas (river of canes). In this river, 
which is an arm of the sea, and along the adjacent 
coast, pearls are procured from certain oysters and 
conchs. These are carried to all the provinces and vil- 
lages of Florida, but principally to Tocobaja, the nearest 
town. The Indians of the town of Abalachi asserted 
that the Spaniards hung their cacique because he 
would not give them a string of large pearls which 



470 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



he wore around Lis neck — the middle pearl being as 
big as the egg of a turtle-dove. Ribault frequently al- 
ludes to the presence of pearls in the possession of the 
natives of Florida, and on one occasion saw. the good- 
liest man of a company of Indians with a collar of gold 
and silver about his neck from which depended a pearl 
" as great as an acorn, at the least." 1 

Father Hennepin 2 assures us that the Indians along 
the banks of the Mississippi wore " bracelets and ear- 
rings of fine pearls which they spoilt, having nothing to 
bore them with but fire." He adds : " They made us to 
understand that they have them in exchange for their 
calumets from some nations inhabiting the coast of the 
great lake to the southward, which I take to be the 
Gulpli of Florida." A member of the expedition of 
Sir Walter Raleigh collected from the natives of Vir- 
ginia five thousand pearls, u of which number he chose so 
many as made a fayre chaine, which for their likenesse, 
and vniformitie in roundnesse, orientnesse and pide- 
nesse of many excellent colours, with equalitie in great- 
nesse, were verie fayre and rare." 3 In the plates illus- 
trative of the " Admiranda Narratio " and the " Brevis 
Narratio" the natives both of Virginia and Florida are 
represented in the possession of numerous strings of 
pearls of large size; and in his description of the 
" treasure or riches " of the Virginia Indians, Beverly 
says : " They likewise have some Pearl amongst them, 
and formerly had many more, but where they got them 
is uncertain, except they found 'em in the Oyster 
Banks which are frequent in this Country." 4 

1 " The Whole and True Discoverye of Terra Florida." Prynted at London by 
Rowland Hall for Thomas Hackett, 1563. 

2 "New Discovery," etc., p. 111. London, 1698. 

3 "ABriefe and True Report of the New-found Land of Virginia," etc., p. 11. 
Francoforti adMoenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 

4 "History and Present State of Virginia,"* book iii., p 59. London, 1705. 



MANISTEE OF OBTAINING PEARLS. 



471 



Wilson asserts that lie saw pearls "bigger than 
Rouncival Pease and perfectly round," taken from 
oysters on the Carolina coast. 1 

By far the most minnte and interesting account of 
the manner in which the Indians obtained pearls and 
converted them into beads, is that furnished by Gar- 
cilasso de la Veo;a. As this observation was made in 
the town of Ichiaha, which was in all likelihood located 
at or near the confluence of the Etowah and Ooste- 
naula Rivers, and perhaps upon the very spot now 
occupied by the village of Rome in Georgia, the narra- 
tive becomes all the more attractive : 

"On the folloAving day the Cacique visited the 
General, 2 and gave him a string of pearls, two fathoms 
long. This present might have been considered valu- 
able if the pearls had not been pierced, for they were 
all of equal size, and as large as hazel-nuts. Soto ac- 
knowledged this favor by presenting the Indian with 
some pieces of velvet and cloth, which were highly ap- 
preciated by him. He then made inquiry of him with 
regard to fishing for these pearls, upon which the 
Indian replied that this was done in his province : that 
a great many pearls were stored in the temple of the 
city of Ichiaha, where his ancestors were buried, and 
that he might take as many of them as he pleased. 
The General expressed his obligations, but observed 
that he would remove nothing from the temple, and 
that he had accepted his present only to please him. 
He desired to learn, however, in what manner the 
pearls were extracted from the shells. The Cacique 
replied he would send out people to fish for pearls all 
night, and that the following day at eight o'clock" (sic) 

1 " An Account of the Proviuce of Carolina," etc., p. 12. London, 1682. 

2 De Soto. 



472 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

" Iris wish should be gratified. He at once ordered four 1 
boats to be dispatched for pearl-fishing, with instruc- 
tions that they should be back in the morning. In 
the mean time much wood was burned on the bank, 
producing a large quantity of glowing coals. When 
the canoes returned, the shells were placed on the hot 
coals, and they opened in consequence of the heat. In 
the very first, ten or twelve pearls, of the size of a pea, 
were found and handed to the Cacique and the Gen- 
eral, who were both present. They found them very 
fine, although the fire had partially deprived them of 
their lustre. When the General had satisfied his curi- 
osity, he retired to take his dinner. While thus en- 
gaged a soldier came in who told him that in eating 
some of the oysters " (sic) " caught by the Indians, a 
pearl had got between his teeth, which pearl being 
very fine and brilliant, he begged him to accept as a 
present for the Governess of Cuba. 2 Soto very civilly 
declined the present, but assured the soldier that he 
was just as much obliged to him as if he had accepted 
his gift ; and that he would endeavor to reward him 
some day for his kindness and for the regard he was 
exhibiting for his wife. He further advised him to 
keep his (intended) present and to buy horses with it 
at Havana. The Spaniards, who were with the Gen- 
eral at that moment, examined the soldier's pearl, and 
some, who professed to be comiaisseurs of jewelry, 
thought it was worth four hundred ducats. It had 
lost nothing of its lustre, as fire had not been employed 
in obtaining it." 3 

1 Irving speaks of forty. 

2 Dona Isabel de Bobadilla, De Soto's wife. 

3 Garcilasso de la Vega, " Conquete de la Florule," trad, par Richelet. Leide, 
1*731, tome i., livre ii., chap, i.,' p. 296, et seq. See also living's "Conquest 



ANECDOTE OF JUAN TEKRON. 



473 



During the course of the weary march of the expe- 
dition through the mountains of Upper Georgia, the 
following circumstance is related by the same historian 
as having occurred : 

" A foot-soldier, calling to a horseman who was his 
friend, drew forth from his wallet a linen bag in which 
were six pounds of pearls probably filched from one of 
the Indian sepulchres. These he offered as a gift to 
his comrade, being heartily tired of carrying them on 
his back, though he had a pair of broad shoulders ca- 
pable of bearing the burden of a mule. The horse- 
man refused to accept so thoughtless an offer. ' Keep 
them yourself,' said he, ' you have most need of them. 
The Governor intends shortly to send messengers to 
Havana: you can forward these presents and have 
them sold, and three or four horses and mares pur- 
chased for you with the proceeds, so that you need no 
longer go on foot.' Juan Terron was piqued at hav- 
ing his offer refused. < Well,' said he, ' if you will 
not have them, I swear I will not carry them, and they 
shall remain here.' So saying, he untied the bag, and 
whirling around as if he were sowing seed, scattered 
the pearls in all directions among the thickets and 
herbage. Then putting up the bag in his wallet, as 
if it was more valuable than the pearls, he marched 
on, leaving his comrade and the other by-standers as- 
tonished at his folly. The soldiers made a hasty 
search for the scattered pearls and recovered thirty of 
them. When they beheld their great size and beauty 
— none of them being bored or discolored — they la- 
mented that so many of them had been lost : for the 
whole would have sold in Spain for more than six 



of Florida," chapter li., p. 245, et seq. See also Pickett's " History of Alabama," 
vol. i., p. 11, et seq. Charleston, 1851. 



474 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

thousand ducats. This egregious folly gave rise to a 
common proverb in the army that ' there are no pearls 
for Juan Terron.' The poor fellow himself became 
an object of constant jest and ridicule, until at last, 
made sensible of his absurd conduct, he implored 
them never to banter him further on the subject." 1 

It is the opinion of Colonel Pickett that the oyster 
alluded to by Garcilasso was identical with the mussel 
so common in all the rivers of Alabama. u Heaps of 
muscle-shells," says he, " are now to be seen on our 
river-banks where the Indians used to live. They 
were much used by the ancient Indians for some pur- 
pose, and old warriors have informed me that their 
ancestors used the shells to temper the clay with which 
they made their vessels. But, as thousands of the 
shells lie banked up — some deep in the ground — 
we may also suppose that the Indians in De Soto's 
time, everywhere in Alabama, obtained pearls from 
them. There can be no doubt about the quantity 
of pearls found in this State and Georgia in 1540, 
but they were of a coarser and less valuable kind than 
the Spaniards supposed. The Indians used to per- 
forate them with a heated copper spindle, and string 
them around their necks and arms like beads." Q 

Strange to say, Cabeca de Vaca makes no specific 
allusion to pearls, save that he was informed by the 
natives that on the coast of the South Sea there were 
pearls and great riches. 

At the time of the Spanish invasion the pearl, as 
an ornament, was held in high esteem by the Mexican 
peoples ; and, upon occasions of state, its beauties were 

1 Garcilasso de la Vega, " Conquete de la Floride," trad, par Richelet. Leide, 
1731, tome ei., livr iv., chap, xix., p. 289, et seq. See also Irving's " Conquest of 
Florida," p. 239, et'seq. 

2 Pickett's "History of Alabama," vol. i., p. 12, note. Charleston, 1851. 



PEARLS AS ORNAMENTS 



475 



invoked to enhance the magnificence of the apparel 
and lend additional lustre to the pomp of royalty. 
When Montezuma alighted from his regal palanquin, 
" blazing with burnished gold " and overshadowed by 
a " canopy of gaudy feather-work powdered with jewels 
and fringed with silver," to grant personal audience to 
Cortez, his ample cloak and golden-soled sandals were 
sprinkled with pearls and precious stones. 

Morales collected large booty of gold and pearls 
from the Indians dwelling on the other side of the isth- 
mus. The vanquished Cacique of Isla Kica brought 
as a peace-offering a basket curiously wrought and 
filled with pearls of great beauty. Among them were 
two of extraordinary size and value. One weighed 
twenty-five carats. The other was as " big as a musca- 
dine pear, of Oriental color and lustre, and weighed 
upward of three drachms." 

The natives of Paria 1 possessed such quantities of 

1 "Before the Spanish Conquest this was a smiling, happy coast, vexed occasion- 
ally by Caribs, but otherwise a bright spot on the earth, where men, without mak- 
ing much pretence to any thing that is elevated in human nature, lived peaceably 
and pleasantly enough, under the shade of their own cocoa-trees, looking out upon 
some of the grandest aspects of Nature. If they thought at all about the matter, 
they must have been delighted with the rich supplies of food which they obtained 
so easily from their oyster-beds. But the diseases of a creature apparently occu- 
pying a low place in the scale of creation, were fated to be the means of dissolv- 
ing the whole of Indian society in these parts, and of reducing large districts from 
a state of cultivation into a state of Nature, so that it is only conjectured now 
by the skilful naturalist, founding his conjecture upon the prevalence of some 
particular flower, that they were once cultivated. 

" It is strange that this little glistening bead, the pearl, should have been the 
cause of so much movement in the world as it has been. There must be some- 
thing essentially beautiful in it, however, for it has been dear to the eyes both of 
civilized and of uncivilized people. The dark-haired Roman lady, in the palmiest 
days of Rome, cognizant of all the beautiful productions in the world, valued the 
pearl as highly as ever did the simple Indian woman ; and a love for these glis- 
tening beads came upon the Spaniards from two quarters — from the Romans who 
had colonized them, and from the Moors they had conquered. So general, indeed, 
was the love for pearls that it was to be expected that whatever country in the 
wide circuit of the whole world was cursed with an abundance of pearl-producing 



476 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 



fine pearls that the most sanguine anticipations were 
awakened in the breast of Columbus. Remembering 
the assertion of Pliny that pearls are generated from 
drops of dew which fall into the mouths of oysters, 
he deemed no place so propitious as this coast for their 
growth and multiplication. When nearing the island 
of Cubagua this admiral, as Charlevoix tells us, be- 
held a number of Indians fishing for pearls, who, at the 
approach of the strangers, at once made for the land. 
A boat being sent to communicate with them, one of 
the sailors noticed many strings of pearls around the 
neck of a female. Having a plate of Valencia-ware — 
a kind of porcelain painted and varnished with gaudy 
colors — he broke it and presented the pieces to the 
Indian woman, who gave him in exchange a consider- 
able number of her pearls. These he carried to the 
admiral, who immediately sent persons on shore well 
provided with Valencian plates and hawk's-bells, for 
which, in a little time, he procured about three pounds 1 
weight of pearls — some of which were of very large 
size, and were sent by him, afterward, to the sover- 
eigns as specimens. 1 

To Vasco Nunez, Tumaco gave jewels of gold, and 
two hundred pearls 2 of great size and beauty, although 

oysters, would be sure, when the fact was discovered, to become a theatre for 
displaying the rapacity of the rest of mankind. 

" The perilous nature, however, of his submarine possessions was not yet visible 
to the poor innocent Indian on the coast of Paria or Cumana ; and it was with child- 
ish delight that he threw the strings of pearls (strung in a way that would have 
driven the jewellers of Europe wild with vexation) on the smooth brown arm or 
rich brown neck of his beloved." — (" Hie Spanish Conquest in America" vol. ii., 
p. 89. London, 1855.) 

1 " Life and Voyages of Columbus," by Washington Irving, vol. ii., p. 123. New 
York, 1849. 

2 Arthur Helps says : " Two hundred and forty large pearls were presented on 
this occasion." He continues : " The Spaniards could hardly contain their joy. 
One thing alone oocurred to damp it. The Indians, not knowing better, were ac- 



PEA KL— DIVERS. 



477 



tliey were somewhat discolored in consequence of the 
fact that the oysters from which they were taken had 
been opened by fire. Observing the value which the 
Spaniards set upon these pearls, the cacique sent a 
number of his men to fish for them. Certain of the 
Indians were trained from their youth to this purpose, 
so as to become expert divers and acquire the power 
of remaining a long time beneath the water. The 
largest pearls were generally found in the deepest 
water, sometimes in three and four fathoms, and were 
sought only in calm weather. The smaller pearls 
were taken at the depth of two and three feet, and the 
oysters containing them were often driven in quanti- 
ties on the beach during violent storms. The party 
of pearl-divers, sent by the cacique, consisted of thirty 
Indians, with whom Yasco Nunez sent six Spaniards 
as eye-witnesses. The sea was so furious at that 
stormy season that the divers dare not venture into 
the deep water. Such a number of the shell-fish, how- 
ever, had been driven on shore, that they collected 
enough to yield pearls to the value of twelve marks of 
gold. They were small, but exceedingly beautiful, 
being newly taken and uninjured by fire. Many of 
these shell-fish and their pearls were selected to be 
sent to Spain as specimens. 1 

Oviedo commemorates the circumstance that this 
cacique, Tumaco, subsequently furnished Yasco iSunez 
with a canoe of state, formed from the trunk of an 
enormous tree and managed by a great number of In- 

customed to open oysters by means of fire : this injured the color of the pearl ; 
and, accordingly, the Spaniards diligently taught the Indians the art of opening 
oysters without fire, with far more diligence, indeed, than they expended in teach- 
ing their new friends any point of Christian doctrine.'' — (" T7ie Spanish Conquest 
in America" vol. i., p. 366. London, 1S55.) 

1 Irving's "Life and Voyages of Columbus and his Companions," vol. iii., p. 
181. New York, 1S49. 



478 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



dians. The handles of the paddles were inlaid with 
small pearls — a fact which Vasco Nunez caused his 
companions to testify before the notary that it might 
be reported to the sovereigns as a proof of the wealth 
of this newly-discovered sea. 

In another bay of the Pacific coast this bold navi- 
gator saw groups of islands abounding with pearls — 
many of them as large as a man's eye. Davyd Ingram, 
during the " Land Travels " of himself and others in the 
years 1568 and 1569, from the Rio de Minas in the 
Gulf of Mexico to Cape Breton in Acadia, made the 
following observation : " There is in some of those 
Countreys great abundunce of Pearle, for in every Cot- 
tage he founde Pearle, in some howse a quarte, in 
some a pottell, in some a peeke, more or lesse, where he 
did see some as great as an Acorn, and Richard Browne, 
one of his Companyons, founde one of these great 
Pearl es in one of their Canoes, or Boates, w ch Pearle he 
gaue to Mouns r Champaine, whoe toke them aboarde 
his Shippe, and brought them to Xewhaven in ffrunce." 1 

Without multiplying these references, we think 
sufficient historical evidence has been adduced to sat- 
isfy the mind of the candid inquirer, and that beyond 
all reasonable doubt, that pearls were in general use 
among the Southern Indians ; that the choicest of 
them were the prized ornaments of the prominent per- 
sonages of the tribes ; that the fluviatile mussels of 
various streams were constantly and extensively col- 
lected and opened for the purpose of procuring these 
gems, which, when obtained, were often pierced by 
means of heated copper spindles ; that the marine 
shells of the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and of the 

1 " Documents connected with the History of South Carolina," edited by 
Plowden Charles Jennett Weston, p. 8. London, 1856. 



PEARLS. 



479 



Pacific, yielded generous and beautiful tribute to the 
labor, skill, and taste of numerous and well-trained 
pearl-divers; and that these gems were found not only 
in the possession of the living, but also in large quan- 
tities in the graves of chieftains and the sepulchres of 
the undistinguished dead. We are assured, moreover, 
of the eagerness with which the Spaniards sought 
after and preserved these treasures; and more than 
once do we hear expressions of disappointment at the 
discoloration and deterioration of the pearls caused by 
the action of fire, and their having been pierced. A 
j)resent of pearls from the caciques to the conquerors 
was an earnest token of consideration, and the most 
acceptable pledge of friendship. It may be that the 
accounts which have reached us from the pens of the 
historians of these various expeditions and voyages, 
are somewhat extravagant with regard to the quantity 
and size of the pearls seen in the possession of the 
natives. It does not appear that many gems of this 
sort from Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, ever glad- 
dened the eyes and enriched the coffers of the home 
authorities, or graced the fair necks of Spanish beau- 
ties. Most of them were observed and left amid the 
wilds of the Land of Flowers, where the spring of per- 
petual youth still conceals its life-giving waters be- 
neath the shades of an untrodden forest. They were 
found and lost in that mythical region at whose upper 
end rose the fabled mountain from whose side flowed 
a stream of molten gold, And yet, in view of all the 
recorded observations, and in the light of subsequent 
investigations, we are not inclined to sympathize with 
those who regard with equal incredulity the story of 
the Abalachi pearl, and the tale told by Sinbad the 
sailor of the vast treasures he saw in the valley of 
diamonds. 



480 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



With all clue allowance for the scope and effect of 
imagination, and, a tendency to exaggeration highly 
developed in minds naturally alive to the marvellous 
and eager, in this terra incognita, to perpetuate im- 
pressions, which, when recounted at home, would ex- 
cite the cupidity and awaken the intense interest of a 
people already familiar with the riches of Peru and 
Mexico and anxious to extend the hand of conquest 
over other regions in this New World, there is in the 
narratives of the career of De Soto, and in kindred re- 
lations, ample proof that pearls of large size and of 
considerable value were in the possession of the 
Southern Indians during the sixteenth century ; that 
their attention had been generally directed to collect- 
ing margatiferous shells ; that by the simple process 
of heating them upon a bed of live coals they extracted 
the pearls from them ; and that they understood the 
art of piercing them with heated copper spindles so 
that they might be strung and worn as ornaments 
around the neck, wrists, and ankles. 

By the narrators of these primal recorded inter- 
views between EurojDeans and the red-men we are 
informed that the Indians obtained their supplies of 
j)earls both from marine shells and from fresh- water 
mussels. Some of the oysters on the Georgia and 
Florida coast are margatiferous. Many of them con- 
tain seed-pearls. On sundry occasions specimens have 
passed under the writer's observation which were 
symmetrical in shape, as large as pepper-corns, and not 
wanting in beauty. Some were quite big enough to 
have been perforated in the rude fashion practised by 
the Indians. They were, however, of a milky color 
and opaque. Neither in size nor quality did they 
answer the description of those spoken of in the Span- 



PEAELS FROM MARINE SHELLS. 



481 



ish narratives. "We know that the Indians who in- 
habited the coast-regions of Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
Alabama, and the more southern States, subsisted to a 
large extent upon oysters, clams, and conchs. This fact 
is to this day attested by the numerous and extensive 
kitchen-refuse piles and shell-heaps which abound upon 
the islands, along the headlands and upon the banks 
of salt-water creeks, and by the quantities of marine 
shells which were used as coverings for many of the 
sepulchral tumuli. These are not the abraded drift- 
shells cast upon the coast by the action of the waves, 
but are the perfect, uninjured shells from which the 
live animals had been artificially removed. Possess- 
ing that passion for ornament so characteristic of all 
barbarous tribes, it excites no surprise that the Indians 
should, as they opened these marine shells, have care- 
fully watched for pearls, and that from out the vast 
numbers consumed, year by year, quite a store of such 
gems should have been accumulated. But, if the 
shores of Carolina, Georgia, and Florida may not have 
afforded specimens of the larger and more highly prized 
pearls, we have only to look a little nearer the equator, 
and we will find pearl-bearing localities whose treasures 
fully gratified the taste of the savage and excited the 
cupidity of the civilized. Pearls could have been here 
procured which, in size and beauty, would corroborate 
the statements of the early navigators and justify, at 
least to a large extent, the seemingly extravagant 
representations of the strings of these gems encircling 
the necks, wrists, and ankles in the oldest representa- 
tions we have of the Southern Indians. In support 
of this opinion we have but to instance the trade in 
pearls which sprung up at an early period with the 

31 



482 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

islet of Cubagua, and at various points in the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

Such, were the trade relations existing between the 
various tribes on this continent, so extensive their inter- 
change of commodities, so general the office of runner 
or primitive merchantman, and so adventurous, in their 
larger canoes, the dwellers along the coast-regions of 
the South, it is not at all improbable that pearls from 
the islands and lower portions of the Gulf of Mexico 
and even from the Pacific Ocean may have found their 
way into the heart of Georgia and Florida and into 
more northern localities, to be there bartered away for 
skins and other articles, which, in their turn, would 
subserve the purposes of this rude exchange of values. 
If, in the same ancient stone grave in Nacoochee Val- 
ley, we find a cassis from the Gulf of Mexico, a copper 
axe from the shores of Lake Superior, and stone imple- 
ments the material for the manufacture of which was 
necessarily obtained at no inconsiderable remove from 
this locality ; if in the study of American archaeology 
we encounter, on every hand, proofs of an extensive 
and varied interchange of articles for use and orna- 
ment, and the concentration in the ownership of a 
single individual of utensils and implements brought 
from places hundreds of miles apart, we surely do not 
overstep the bounds of probability when we suggest 
that the most admirable pearls among the Southern 
Indians once living within the present geographical 
limits of the United States were obtained from marine 
shells native to the Gulf of Mexico. The replies of 
the Indians to inquiries addressed to them on this 
subject by Hennepin and others, and the presence in 
remote localities of beads, ornaments, and drinking- 
cups — all made of marine shells and conchs to this day 



PEARLS FEOM FLUVIATILE SHELLS. 483 

peculiar to the Gulf of Mexico — confirm the truthful- 
ness of the suggestion. 

But we are not confined to marine shells as the 
only or perhaps the chief source whence the Southern 
Indians derived most of their pearls. In all likelihood 
the fluviatile mussels contributed more freely than 
any other shells to the gratification of the ornament- 
loving masses. As we ascend the Southern rivers we 
observe, at various prominent points, relic-beds com- 
posed in great degree of the fresh- water shells native 
to the streams. It is hardly an exaggeration to assert 
that no prominent stream is entirely devoid of them. 
The inland lakes of Florida afford similar evidences of 
the former occupancy of their shores by the aborigines, 
and even some ponds in Middle Georgia and Alabama 
exhibit alons* their banks unmistakable signs of an- 
cient refuse-piles into whose composition lacustrine 
shells enter largely. 

As an illustration of the frequency and extent of 
these relic-beds along the banks of the rivers, we may 
instance those on the right bank of the Savannah 
River, above the city of Augusta. Only one need be 
specifically mentioned, and this will be found in Colum- 
bia County, near the confluence of Great Kiokee Creek 
and the Savannah River. Here, opposite a succession 
of rapids in the river — a locality which would have 
afforded marked facilities for successful fishing in the 
manner adopted by the Indians of this region — upon a 
bold bluff is an accumulation of fresh-water shells 
covering the surface of the ground to a depth varying 
from two to four feet, and extending nearly one hun- 
dred yards in length, and more than a quarter of that 
distance in width. Intermingled with them may still 
be found the bones of large fishes, deer, turkeys, rac- 



484 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



coons, bears, bison, turtles, squirrels, rabbits, and other 
animals and birds, and also fragments of pottery, ar- 
row and spear points, soapstone net-sinkers, erushing- 
stones, axes, chisels, rude mortars and other imple- 
ments, and various ornaments of clay and soap-stone. 
Here, then, was one of the favorite camping-grounds 
of the Indians. Hither they resorted for centuries, 
feeding upon fish, mussels, and game. This is but one 
of many extensive refuse-heaps of a similar charac- 
ter which have attracted the notice of the writer 
along the banks of the fresh- water rivers not only in 
Georgia, but also in Florida, Carolina, Alabama, and 
Tennessee. In these relic-beds no two parts of the 
same shell are, as a general rule, found in juxtaposition. 
The hinge is broken, and the valves of the shell, after 
having been artificially torn asunder, seem to have 
been carelessly cast aside and allowed to accumulate 
at the very doors of the lodges, where, mixed with the " 
debris of the encampment, in the course of time they 
became heaped up to such an extent as to form these 
large shell-banks. In these early days the Southern 
rivers must have abounded with mussels. Their shells 
were sometimes used (as were the oyster, the conch, 
and the clam along the coast) in the construction of 
burial-mounds. Take, for example, that large tumulus 
located on Stalling' s Island, in the Savannah River, a 
few miles above Augusta, a description of which has 
already been presented. The river tmios enter largely 
into its composition. The clay of which the Indians 
made their pottery was not infrequently mixed with par- 
ticles of shells powdered for that purpose. It is also 
true that at least some of their shell ornaments were 
fashioned from the larger varieties of fluviatile shells 
found in the neighborhood. Evidently, therefore, the 



PEAKL— BEAKIXG SHELLS. 485 

collection of fresh-water mussels must have occupied 
no little of the time and labor of the natives. That 
they subsisted largely, at certain seasons, upon them, 
as an article of food, admits of no doubt. Not a few 
of the unios of the Southern rivers, lakes, and swamps, 
are margatiferous. From the physical proofs enumer- 
ated — aside from all historical testimony — where such 
quantities of shells were collected and opened, we may 
well believe that many pearls must have been found, 
and we incline the more readily to give credence to the 
statements of the Fidal^o of Elvas and the narrative 
of Garcilasso de la Ve^a. If it be true — as some have 
supposed — that the town of Cutifachiqui was located on 
the Savannah River, not very many miles below the site 
at present occupied by the city of Augusta, and if De 
Soto was standing on the bank of the Etowah when 
the Cacique of Ichiaha kindly sent his men to gather 
the mussels, and showed him how pearls were extracted 
from them, we still have, in the shell-heaps extant 
upon the banks of these streams, physical proofs of 
these ancient pearl-fisheries and ocular demonstrations 
of the verity of those relations. 

With a view to ascertaining the precise varieties of 
shells from which the Southern Indians obtained their 
pearls, the writer invited an expression of opinion 
from several gentlemen of intelligence whose scientific 
pursuits rendered them familiar with the conchology 
of the United States. The following extracts from 
some of the replies which were received, will be found 
interesting, as throwing light upon the inquiry: 

Dr. William Stimpson, of the Chicago Academy of 
Sciences, expresses the opinion that the statements of 
the early Spanish historians with regard to the size of 
the pearls (as large as filberts) are incorrect. He says : 



486 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

k> The pearls of the aviculce — our only margatiferous 
marine genus — are very small, and those of the oyster, 
valueless. The Indians must have obtained their pearls 
from the fresh-water bivalves (unio and aiiodoii), 
which abound in the rivers of Georgia, etc. These 
are usually small, but, in very rare instances, examples 
have occurred reaching in diameter one-third of an 
inch." 

" Most of the fresh-water mussels," writes Professor 
Joseph Le Conte, " contain small pearls now and then. 
By far the best and largest number I have seen were 
taken from the Anodon Gibiosa (Lea), a large and 
beautiful shell abundant in the swamps of Liberty 
County, Georgia — at least in Bull-town and Alatamaha 
Swamps. Some of the pearls taken from this species 
are as large as swan-shot. Of the salt-water shells I 
know not if any produce pearls except the oyster 
(Ostrea Virg inland). Pearls of small size are sometimes 
found in them." Professor William S. Jones, of the 
University of Georgia, says he has seen small pearls in 
many of the unios in Southern Georgia, I am informed 
by Professor Wyman that, after a careful and extensive 
series of excavations in the shell-heaps of Florida, he 
has failed to find in them a single pearl " It is hardly 
probable," he remarks, " that the Spaniards could have 
been mistaken as to the fact of the ornaments of the 
Indians being pearls, but in view of their frequent 
exaggerations, I am almost compelled to the belief that 
there was some mistake ; and, possibly, they may not 
have distinguished between the pearls and the shell 
beads, some of which would correspond with the size 
and shape of the pearls mentioned by the Spaniards." 

Professor Joseph Jones, whose recent investigations 
have thrown much valuable light upon the contents of 



PEAEL-BEAKIXG SHELLS. 



487 



the ancient tumuli of Tennessee, says : " I do not re- 
member finding a genuine pearl in the many mounds 
which I opened in the valleys of the Tennessee, the 
Cumberland, the Harpeth, and elsewhere. Many of 
the pearls described by the Spaniards were probably 
little else than polished beads cut out of large sea-shells 
and from the thicker portions of fresh-water mussels, 
and prepared so as to resemble pearls. I have ex- 
amined thousands of these, and they all present a 
laminated structure as if carved out of thick shells and 
sea-conchs." 

Mr. Charles M. Wheatley is confident that there 
are " splendid pearls in Southern unios." He instances 
the Unio BJandingianus and the large old Unio Bud.- 
dianus (Buckleyi) from Lakes George and Monroe in 
Florida, as pearl bearing. " In Georgia," he continues, 
" the large, thick shells of the Chattahoochee, such as 
the Unio ElUottii, would be the most likely to contain 
fine ones ; but there is no positive rule, as an injured 
shell of any species will doubtless afford some : ir- 
regular in most cases and of no value, but in some in- 
stances worth from fifty to one hundred dollars." He 
mentions that he has received from the Tennessee 
River, in Alabama, fine round pearls both white and 
rose-colored. 

From the response of Mr. John G. Anthony I ex- 
tract the following : " I cannot so well answer your 
query as to what shells in Georgia and Florida are 
pearl-bearers, having never collected in the latter State 
and but little in Georgia, but I can say about Ohio 
what I presume will hold good in other States, that the 
unios of various species furnish them tolerably abun- 
dantly there. They are not confined to any one par- 
ticular species, but are generally found in the thicker 



488 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



and more ponderous shells, though even the thinner 
shells often have small ones, especially such species as 
are found in canals, ponds, and places which seem to 
"be not so healthy for the animal on account of stag- 
nant water. I recollect taking over twenty small ones 
out of the mantle of one specimen of Unio FragUis 
(Rafinesque), Unio Gracilis (Barnes), which I found in 
the Miami canal ; and almost every old shell there had 
more or fewer pearls in it. Unio Torsus (Rafinesque), 
Unio Orhiculatus (Hildreth), and Unio Costatus (Ka- 
finesque), Unio Undalatus (Barnes), also produce 
them in Ohio. I have seen about half a pint of beau- 
tiful pearls, regularly formed and pea-size, which were 
taken in one season and in one neighborhood ; so you 
may judge of their frequency, though, as I hinted be- 
fore, it is probable that a kind of disease caused by 
impure water may govern their jDroduction somewhat. 
No doubt the Southern waters are given to making 
pearls as well as Ohio streams. I have seen protuber- 
ances of the pearl character in Southern shells, and 
have no doubt that one collecting them with the ani- 
mal in them would find pearls. I particularly recol- 
lect Unio Glebulus (Say), and Unio Mortoni (Conrad) 
— both Louisiana species — as having these protuber- 
ances in their nacreous matter. Georgia unios are 
generally too thin to produce any excess of pearly 
matter and form pearls, but the Louisiana shells from 
Bayou Teche, which I have seen, have a remarkably 
pearly nacre, quite thick, reminding one very much of 
the marine shell Trigo?iia, as to nacre. No doubt the 
bayous, which have in general no current at all, would 
make first-rate places for pearl-breeding." 

Dr. Brinton observed many artificial shell-heaps 
alono; the Tennessee River and its tributaries. The 



PEARL— BEARESTG SHELLS. 



489 



Tennessee mussel ( Unto Virginianus) is margatiferous, 
" and there is no doubt," says the Doctor, " but that 
it was from this species that the early tribes obtained 
the hoards of pearls which the historians of De Soto's 
exploration estimated by bushels, and which were so 
much prized as ornaments." 1 

Dr. Kidder has recently pointed out the source 
whence at least small pearls and perhaps some fine 
specimens could have been obtained by the Indians of 
Florida, and in considerable quantities. In the unio- 
nidce of some of the fresh-water lakes of that State he 
has of late found not less than three thousand pearls 
— most of them small, but many large enough to be 
perforated and worn as beads. From one unio he 
took eighty-four seed pearls ; from another fifty, from a 
third twenty, and froni several ten or twelve each. 
His examinations have hitherto been chiefly confined 
to Lake Griffin and its vicinity. He proposes soon, 
however, to open the shells of Lake Okeechobee, 
which are larger, and there hopes to find pearls of su- 
perior size and quality. It is said, but with what 
truth cannot now be definitely afifirmed, that upon one 
of the islands in this lake are the remains of an old 
pearl-fishery. 

In view of the general use of the pearl as an orna- 
ment by the Southern Indians, and of the quantities 
of lacustrine and fluviatile shells opened by them in 
various localities whither they resorted for the purpose 
of fishing and feeding upon these mussels, it seems 
singular that the pearl is not more frequently met with 
in the relic-beds and sepulchral tumuli of this region. 
We would expect to find them also in the refuse-piles, 
shell-heaps, and mounds of the coast. After an exami- 
nes Smithsonian Report for 1866, p. 357. 



490 ANTIQUITIES OE THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

nation of several fresh-water shell-heaps on the banks 
of the Savannah, and of others of a similar character 
in Alabama, Florida, and South Carolina, and after 
exploring many shell and earth mounds, particularly 
on the Georgia coast, the writer has failed, except in a 
few instances, to find pearls. These were obtained 
chiefly in an extensive relic-bed on the Savannah River, 
about twenty miles above Augusta, the largest being 
four-tenths of an inch in diameter, and all of them 
blackened by fire. It is, perhaps, not to be wondered 
at that many of the smaller earth-mounds on the 
Georgia coast do not contain pearls, because at the 
period of their construction the custom of burning the 
dead appears to have obtained very generally. So 
intense in some cases were the fires then kindled, that 
even hard stone axes and arrow-points were sjDlintered. 
Under these circumstances it may be that the pearls 
were either immediately consumed or so seriously in- 
jured as soon to crumble out of sight. Excluding this 
class of tumuli from present consideration, and cred- 
iting the statements of the Fidako of Elvas and of 
others touching the large quantities of pearls found in 
Indian graves in the sixteenth century, we have been 
somewhat surprised that their presence has not been 
more frequently detected in relic-beds and tumuli in 
this region, in which there is no lack of shell-beads and 
other ornaments made of the same material. This ap- 
parent absence of pearls tends in some measure to con- 
firm the notion of those who entertain the belief that 
by the imaginative Spaniards many beads and orna- 
ments made of the thicker portions of marine and fluvi- 
atile shells — carved, perforated, and brilliant with 
their primal coloring — were rated as pearls. The au- 
thorities, however, are so numerous and direct, and 



PEAELS FOUND IN GRAVE— MOUNDS. 401 

the recent examinations into the contents of these 
tumuli and relic-beds have been so partial, that for 
one we cannot acquiesce, except to a qualified extent, 
in this opinion. Our impression is, that future and 
more minute investigations will reveal the existence 
of pearls, in various localities where the pearl-bearing 
mussels were collected, and where general inhumations 
occurred. Perforated pearls have been found in an 
ancient burial-ground, located near the bank of the 
Ogeechee River, in Bryan County, Georgia ; and I am 
informed by the Reverend F. R. Goulding, that some 
twenty-five years ago, just after a heavy freshet in the 
Oconee River which had laid bare many Indian graves 
in the neighborhood of the large mounds on Poullain's 
plantation, he gathered on the spot fully a hundred 
pearls, of considerable size, some pierced, and others 
unbored. 

From the " altar " or " sacrificial " mounds, Messrs. 
Squier and Davis took a large number of pearl beads. 
By exposure to the heat, they had lost their brilliancy 
and consequent value as ornaments. Most of them 
were so much injured that they crumbled under the 
touch. The following is the account given of them in 
the " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley : " 1 
" The peculiarities of their form, and their concentric 
lamellae, joined to the lingering lustre which some re- 
tain, place their character beyond dispute. Several 
hundreds in number, and not far from a quart in quan- 
tity, are in our possession, which retain their structure 
sufficiently well to be strung and handled. The largest 
of these measures two and a half inches in circumfer- 
ence, or upward of three-fourths of an inch in diameter. 
They are of all intermediate sizes, down to one-fourth 



1 Pages 232 and 233, vol. i., " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge." 



492 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

of an inch in diameter. Most are irregular in form, or 
pear-shaped ; yet there are many perfectly round. 
They have been obtained from separate localities, sev- 
eral miles apart, and from five distinct groups of 
mounds. Great numbers were so much calcined, that 
it was found impossible to recover them, and a large 
number crumbled in pieces after removal from the 
mounds. It is no exaggeration to say that a number 
of quarts of pearls were originally deposited in the 
mounds referred to ; probably nearly two quarts were 
contained in a single mound." 

Without expressing a decided opinion as to the 
precise locality whence these pearls were derived, it 
was evidently the impression of Messrs. Squier and 
Davis that for them a Southern origin should be 
sought. 

From this examination it may, we think, be fairly 
concluded : 

First. That the possession by the Southern Indians 
of pearls, bored and unbored, at the time of primal 
intercourse between the white and red races, is clearly 
proven. 

Second. That the use by the Indians of such orna- 
ments was a matter not of recent, but of long standing. 

Third. That evidence of the collection and employ- 
ment of these gems was furnished not only by the 
ownership of living Indians, but also by the large and 
frequent accumulations found in the graves and tumuli 
of the dead. 

Fourth. That near the Gulf of Mexico and upon 
the Pacific coast lived trained divers whose occupation 
consisted in fishing for pearls. 

Fifth. That, in view of the trade-relations existing 
between the various American tribes, it is not at all 



PEAELS. 



493 



unlikely that the finer specimens of pearls worn as 
ornaments by the Indians of Florida, Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Carolina, Louisiana, and more northern localities, 
were obtained from the islands and shores of the Gulf 
of Mexico, and perhaps even from the Pacific coast. 

Sixth, That the fluviatile shells and lacustrine 
unios of the Southern fresh- water rivers and lakes were 
extensively gathered and opened by the natives both 
for the purposes of food and with a view of obtaining 
the pearls which they produced ; and that from this 
source the Indians probably secured their principal 
supply of common pearls. 

Seventh. That pearls from both marine and fresh- 
water shells were greatly prized as ornaments by the 
aborigines, whose custom it was to perforate them — 
usually by means of heated copper spindles — and wear 
them on strings around the neck, wrists, waist, thighs, 
and ankles. 

Eighth. That these gems were of such quality as to 
excite the cupidity of the early voyagers, and attract 
the marked attention of the various expeditions. 

Ninth. That the marine shells of the Gulf oft Mex- 
ico and of some portions of the Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts, as well as the unios of the Southern rivers and 
lakes, could have supplied all the pearls represented 
by the early narratives as having been found upon 
the persons and in the temples and tumuli of the na- 
tives. 

Tenth. That the Spanish accounts of the quantity 
and size of the pearls seen in possession of the Indians 
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, while they 
may be somewhat exaggerated, are not, in the main, to 
be regarded as unworthy of belief. 

Eleventh. That the various shell-heaps along the 



494 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

coast and upon the banks of Southern streams, as well 
as the large quantities of shells, both marine and fluvi- 
atile, employed in the construction of sepulchral tumu- 
li, should be reckoned as proofs of the general truthful- 
ness of those narratives^ and as furnishing indications 
of the local sources whence large numbers of pearls 
were probably derived. 

And, lastly, that, in all likelihood, a careful exam- 
ination of these shell heaps and mounds will, even at 
this day, disclose the j)resence of pearls. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



Primitive Uses of Shells. — Shell-Money. — Shell Ornaments. — Personal Decorations. 
— Concluding Observations. 

Amo^g the many relics which, escaping the disin- 
tegrating influences of time and inherent decay, bear 
present testimony to the fact that in former times they 
answered various artificial uses and were freely ex- 
changed in traffic among the Southern Indians, few 
are more widely distributed then those made of shell. 
Copper from the prehistoric mines of Lake Superior, 
galena from beyond the Mississippi, mica from distant 
hills, silver and gold in small quantities, and numer- 
ous worked flints and stones, are found in localities to 
which they should be utter strangers and in which 
their presence would never be expected but for the 
extensive interchange of articles which obtained among 
these primitive peoples. To the coast tribes the sea 
was the great treasure-house whence were derived 
abundant supplies with which they might constantly 
carry on a trade with interior nations, and from them 
secure coveted products of the mountains, chipped, 
rubbed, or beaten into well-known and desired forms 
of use and ornament. In the preceding chapter we 
commented at some length upon the employment of 



496 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

pearls as gems for personal adornment and as articles 
possessing the highest commercial value among the red- 
men, of the South. We have seen how diligently they 
were collected, how carefully they were perforated 
with heated copper spindles so that they could be 
worn as beads, and how extensively these beautiful 
offerings not only of the fresh-water mussels, but also 
of the shells of the Gulf of Mexico and the Southern 
seas, were distributed among tribes remote from locali- 
ties whence they were derived. These ornaments 
might very properly be considered in the present con- 
nection ; but, in view of what has already been said 
on this subject, any further notice is here pretermitted. 
We have also observed, upon an examination of the 
frequent and large refuse-piles, that the coast Indians 
and those dwelling near rivers and lakes, relied upon 
oysters, mussels, clams, and conchs, as important arti- 
cles of food. 

Although the labors of the primitive workers in 
shell were chiefly expended upon the manufacture of 
a convenient and well-recognized medium of exchange, 
and the preparation of various ornaments, in the do- 
mestic economy of the natives sundry were the offices 
shells were made to perform. Some of these we will 
briefly enumerate : 

I. They were employed as gouges, chisels, scrap- 
ers, and knives. 

In that rude period when men — almost entirely ig- 
norant of the use of metals — were compelled from such 
objects as Nature placed within their reach to select 
those materials which would most conveniently supply 
their mechanical requirements, the ancient artificers, 
avoiding the protracted labor necessary for the conver- 
sion of stone fragments into implements of serviceable 



SHELL SCRAPERS. 



497 



shape, found in the strong shells of the ocean and in 
many fluviatile mussels convenient tools, well formed, 
edged, and ready to hand. 

In plate xii. of the "Admiranda Narratio," an 
Indian is represented with a conch busily engaged in 
scraping away the charred portions of the interior of 
a canoe which is being hollowed out by fire. From 
the part of the canoe upon which he is working the 
fire has evidently just been removed by his assistant, 
who, with a fan in one hand and a stick in the other, 
is kindling a flame in another portion of the trough- 
shaped boat. The explanatory note informs us that 
by means of shells the bark was removed from -the 
trunk destined for the canoe (" tunc cortice conchis qui- 
busdam adempto"), and that, after it had been hol- 
lowed out by fire, its interior, with the aid of like im- 
plements, was scraped and rendered smooth (" restincto 
igne cochis scabunt, <fe nouo suscitato igne denuo adu- 
runt, atque ita deinceps pergunt, subinde urentes &> 
scabentes donee cymba necessarium alueum nacta sit.") 1 

The wooden spades and mattocks used by the Flor- 
ida Indians in the cultivation of the soil were made 
u with certain stones, oyster-shells, and mussels, where- 
with also they made their bows and small lances, and 
cut and polish all sorts of wood that they employ 
about their buildings and necessary use." 2 

Beverly s asserts that before the English supplied 
the Virginia Indians with metallic tools, their knives 

1 " Admiranda Narratio," etc., Francoforti ad Moenum. De Bry, anno 1590. 

2 " The Whole and True Discoverye of Terra Florida," etc., " written in French 
by Captain Ribaulde, the first that wholly discovered the same, and now newly 
set forth in the English the xxx. of May, 1563. Prynted at London by Rowland 
Hall, for Thomas Hackett." 

3 " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chap, xiii., p. 60. London , 
1705. 

32 



498 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN" INDIANS. 

consisted either of sharpened reeds or shells, and that 
with these and sharp stone-axes " bound to the end 
of a stick and glued in with turpentine," they formed 
bows of locust- wood, and cut and notched their arrows. 

The oyster-shell was employed as a scraper in 
dressing hides. 1 

Many of the clam, oyster and mussel shells of the 
Southern waters were well adapted to the uses of 
scrapers and gouges ; and the supply of such natural 
tools was at all times accessible, and limitless in quan- 
tity. So common were they, that near the coast they 
were not regarded of value sufficient to warrant their 
inhumation with the dead. 

II. As Deinking-Cups. — -The use of certain conchs 
as drinking-cups seems to have been general among 
the Southern Indians. When the Florid ians, in the 
sixteenth century, would deliberate upon grave affairs, 
the chief men were wont to assemble in the public 
place, where, upon a semicircular wooden bench, they 
all took their seats. The king or mico appeared also, 
and occupied his place in the centre, where was a seat 
elevated above the rest. At his command certain 
women prepared the casina. Upon a given signal 
from the cacique, the cup-bearer offered this hot decoc- 
tion in a capacious shell first to the king, and then to 
the noted personages who were present, each drinking 
in the order of his rank. 3 

In plate xix. of the "Brevis Narratio," widows, in 
token of their grief, are strewing their hair upon the 
graves of their dead husbands. Upon each grave are 

1 "Natural History of North Carolina," etc., Brickell, p. 365. Dublin, 1737. 
Lawson's "History of Carolina," etc., pp. 338, 339. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 

2 " Turn pocillator primum Regi hoc decoctum calidum in capace concha prsebet, 
deinde (sic imperante Rege), omnibus alijs ex ordine, in ilia ipsa concha." "Brevis 
Narratio," etc., plate xxix. Francoforti ad Mcenum. De Bry, anno 1591. 



SHELL DRINKIXG-CUPS. 



499 



seen the bow, quiver, spear, and shell drinking-cup of 
the deceased. 1 Upon the demise of a king or priest, 
for three days did the members of his tribe gather 
around his tomb and mourn and fast. About the base 
of the tumulus numerous arrows were stuck in the 
ground, while upon its top was placed the shell from 
which he was accustomed to drink. 2 

In many of the burial-mounds of Georgia conch s 
are found which were doubtless used as drinking-cups, 
and placed there at the period of the inhumation in 
obedience to that well-established custom which sur- 
rounded the dead with articles of value, ornament, and 
convenience, that there should be no lack of them in 
the spirit-land. From some of them the axes have 
been entirely removed. In the stone graves of Nacoo- 
chee Valley more than one cassis flammea was seen. 
In each instance the interior whorls and columellas 
had been carefully cut away, so that these large uni- 
valves formed capacious and serviceable vessels. 

Similar relics were observed by Professor Joseph 
Jones in the stone graves of Tennessee, and they have 
been found in ancient tumuli in several of the South- 
ern States. , Sometimes these shells were, at great 
pains, divided longitudinally. In the neighborhood of 
the coast the Pyrula perversa seems to have been the 
common drinking-cup, and, in its natural shape, handily 
supplemented the calabashes and fictile ware in minis- 
tering to the simple wants of these primitive peoples. 
Mr. Haywood 3 says that at the annual feast of Har- 
vest the Southern Indians sent to those of their 

1 " Maritorum arma, conchas ex quibus bibebant." 

2 " Brevis Narratio," plate xl. "Defuncto aliquo Rege ejus Provinciae, magna 
solemnitate sepelitur & ejus tumulo crater, e quo bibere solebat, impouitur, 
defixis circa ipsum tumulum multis sagittis." 

3 "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," p. 156. Nashville, 1S23 



500 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



number who were sick and unable to participate in 
the solemnities and festivities of the occasion, old con- 
secrated shells, full of the sanctified, bitter casina, 

III. As Spoons. — Clam and cockle shells were ex- 
tensively used in this way. Generally the half- shell, 
in its natural state, sufficed ; but, in many instances, a 
handle, just wide enough to be conveniently grasped 
by the thumb and forefinger, was cut in the side near 
the hinge. In this way hot food might be scooped up 
without bringing the fingers in contact with it. 

Lying upon the mat by the side of the woman, one 
of these shell spoons is figured in plate xvi. of the 
" Admiranda Narratio." 1 Such shells also served a 
good turn in scaling fishes. In the writer's collection 
are fine sjDeciuiens taken from the grave-mounds of 
Tennessee. 

IV. As Agricultural Implements. 2 

V. As Rattles. — These were made of the shells of 
the land-tortoise, 3 or of conchs from which the interior 
whorls and columellas had been removed and pebbles, 
beans, or beads placed in them. By means of deer-skin 
thongs they were fastened to the outside of the legs. 
In dancing, every saltatory movement was accompa- 
nied by a corresponding jingle, and thus each motion 
called forth a certain sort of rude music. 

VI. As Eeceptacles or Shrines eoe Idols. — Dr. 
Troost had in his collection a large cassis flammea 
whose interior whorls and columella had been entirely 
removed, and the front of the shell opened so as to 
permit the entrance and enshrining of a small image 

1 See also Beverly's " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chap, 
iv., p. 17. London, 1705. 

2 Loskiel's "North American Indians," pp. 66, 67. London, 1794. 

3 Adair's " History of the American Indians," pp. 169, 170. London, 1775. 



SHELL-MONEY. 



503 



in a kneeling posture. That idol was within the shell 
when it was ploughed up, and is figured in situ on 
page 361 of volume i. of the "Transactions of the 
American Ethnological Society." 1 This may be an 
exceptional case, but it is well authenticated and wor- 
thy of specific mention in this connection. 

VII. As an Element of Strength and Durability 
in the Manufacture of Earthen-ware. — For this 
purpose shells were reduced, by pounding, to a fine 
powder and mixed with the clay. The mass, moist- 
ened with water, was then carefully kneaded and 
subsequently formed into the desired vessel. As we 
have, however, in the chapter devoted to an examina- 
tion of the pottery of the Soutliern Indians alluded to 
this use of shells, we refrain from further comment. 

VIII. As Money. — Ignorant of the relative worth 
of metals, and, in the manufacture of serviceable and 
ornamental articles, treating gold, silver and copper 
simply as malleable stones, it was necessary that the 
Indians in the interchange of various commodities 
should agree upon something which by common con- 
sent should be regarded and accepted as the represent- 
ative of fixed values. Accordingly, they selected what 
is now generally known as wampum, or shell -money. 
The term wampum is. said to be an Algonkin 2 word, 
signifying white — such being the prevailing color of 
the beads. The ordinary wampum beads 3 are cylin- 
drical in shape, varying from the sixth to a quarter of 
an inch in length and being about the eighth of an 
inch in diameter. They are of two varieties, the one 

1 New York, 1845. 

2 Loskiel asserts it to be an Iroquois word, meaning a mussel. 11 History of 
the Mission of the United Brethren," etc., p. 26. London, 1794. 

3 These beads are variously known as wampumpeago, wampeage, peage, wam- 
pum peak, peak, seawan, sea want, ronoak, etc., etc. 



502 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

white, and the other blue or purplish-black — the latter 
being the more valuable (see Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 
XXX.). 

On the Virginia coast, as we are informed in the 
" Westover Papers," the species of conch-shell is found 
of which the Indian peak is made : " The extremities 
of these shells are blue, the rest being white, so that 
peak of both these colours are drilled out of the same 
shell, serving the natives both for ornament and 
money, and are esteemed by them beyond gold and 
silver." 

Beverly 1 thus -describes what he quaintly terms 
the treasure or riches of the Virginia Indians : " The 
Indians had nothing which they reckoned Riches 
before the English went among them, except Peak, 
Poenoke, and such-like trifles made out of the Gunk 
Shell. These past with them instead of Gold and Sil- 
ver, and serv'd them both for Money and Ornament. 
It was the English alone that taught them first to put 
a value on their Skins and Furs, and to make a Trade 
of them. 

" Peak is of two sorts, or rather of two colours, for 
both are made of one Shell, tho of different parts ; one 
is a dark Purple Cylinder, and the other a white ; 
they are both made in size and figure alike, and com- 
monly much resembling the English Puglas, but not 
so transparent nor so brittle. They are wrought as 
smooth as Glass, being one-third of an inch long, and 
about a quarter, diameter, strung by a hole drill'd thro 
the center. The dark colour is the dearest, and dis- 
tinguish'd by the name of Wampom Peak. The 
English men that are call'd Indian Traders value the 



1 " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chapter xii., p. 58. Lon- 
don, 1705. 




AM. PHOTO-LITHOGRAPH.'C CO NY \ OSBORNES PROCESS I 



SHELL-MONEY. 



503 



Wampom Peak at eighteen pence per Yard, and the 
white Peak at nine pence. The Indians also make 
Pipes of this, two or three inches long, and thicker 
than ordinary, which are much more valuable. They 
also make Buntees of the same Shell, and grind them 
as smooth as Peak. These are either large, like an 
Oval Bead, and drill'd the length of the Oval, or else 
they are circular and flat, almost an inch over, and one 
third of an inch thick, and drill'd edgeways. Of this 
Shell they also make round Tablets of about four 
inches diameter, which they polish as smooth as the 
other, and sometimes they etch or grave thereon Cir- 
cles, Stars, a Half-Moon, or any other figure suitable to 
their fancy. These they wear instead of Medals before 
or behind their Neck, and use the Peak, Buntees, and 
Pipes for Coronets, Bracelets, Belts, or long Strings, 
hanging down before the Breast, or else they lace 
their Garments with them, and adorn their Toma- 
hawks and every other thing that they value. 

" They have also another sort which is as current 
among them, but of far less value ; and this is made of 
the Cockle shell, broke into small bits with rough 
edges, drill'd through in the same manner as Beads, 
and this they call Boenoke, and use it as the Peak, 

" These sorts of Money have their rates set upon 
them as unalterable, and current as the values of our 
Money are. 

" The Indians have likewise some Pearl amongst 
them, and formerly had many more, but where they 
got them is uncertain, except they found 'em in the 
Oyster Banks, which are frequent in this Country." 

The money of the Carolina Indians, says Lawson, 1 
" is of different sorts, but all made of shells which are 



1 "History of Carolina," etc., p. 315. Raleigh reprint, 1SG0. 



504 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

found on the coast of Carolina, which are very large 
and hard so that they are very difficult to cut. Some 
English smiths have tried to drill this sort of shell- 
money, and thereby thought to get an advantage ; but 
it proved so hard that nothing could be gained. They 
oftentimes make of this shell a sort of gorge, which 
they wear about their neck in a string ; so it hangs on 
their collar, whereon sometimes is engraven a cross or 
some odd sort of figure which comes next in their 
fancy. There are other sorts valued at a doe skin, yet 
the gorges will sometimes sell for three or four buck 
skins ready dressed. There be others, that eight of 
them go readily for a doe. skin; but the general and 
current species of all the Indians in Carolina, and, I 
believe, all over the continent as far as the Bay of 
Mexico, is that which we call Peak and Ronoak ; but 
Peak more especially. This is that which at New 
York they call wampum, and have used it as current 
money amongst the inhabitants for a great many years. 
This is what many writers call porcelan, and is made 
in New York in great quantities, and with us in some 
measure. Five cubits of this purchase a dressed doe 
skin, and seven or eight purchase a dressed buck skin. 
An Englishman could not afford to make so much of 
this wampum for five or ten times the value ; for it is 
made out of a vast great shell, of which that country 
affords plenty; where it is ground smaller than the 
small end of a tobacco pipe, or a large wheat straw. 
Four or five of these make an inch, and every one is 
to be drilled through, and made as smooth as glass, 
and so strung as beads are, and a cubit of the Indian 
measure contains as much in length as will reach from 
the elbow to the end of the little finger. They never 
stand to question whether it is a tall man or a short 



SHELL-MONEY. 



505 



man that measures it ; but if this wampum peak he 
black or purple, as some part of that shell is, then it 
is twice the value. This the Indians grind on stones 
and other things till they make it current, but the 
drilling is the most difficult to the Englishmen, which 
the Indians manage with a nail stuck in a cane or reed. 
Thus they roll it continually on their thighs with their 
right hand, holding the bit of shell with their left ; so, 
in time, they drill a hole quite through it, which is a 
very tedious work ; but especially in making their 
ronoak, four of which will scarce make one length of 
wampum. The Indians are a people that never value 
their time, so that they can afford to make them, and 
never need to fear the English will take the trade out 
of their hands. This is the money with which you 
may buy skins, furs, slaves, or any thing the Indians 
have ; it being the mammon (as our money is to us) 
that entices and persuades them to do any thing, and 
part with every thing they possess, except their chil- 
dren for slaves. As for their wives, they are often 
sold, and their daughters violated for it. With this 
they buy off murders ; and whatsoever a man can do 
that is ill, this wampum will quit him of, and make 
him, in their opinion, good and virtuous, though never 
so black before." 1 

Alluding to the passion of the Southern Indians 
for ornaments, Adair 2 remarks : " Before we supplied 
them with our European beads, they had great quan- 
tities of wampum (the Buccinum of the ancients), 
made out of conch-shell by rubbing them on hard 
stones, and so they form them according to their liking. 

1 Compare Dr. BrickelPs "Natural History of North Carolina," p. 337, et seq. 
Dublin, 1737. 

2 "History of the American Indians," etc., p. 170. London, 1765. 



506 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



" With these they bought and sold at a stated cur- 
rent rate, without the least variation for circumstances 
either of time or place ; and now they will hear noth- 
ing patiently of loss or gain, or allow us to heighten the 
price of our goods, be our reasons ever so strong, or 
though the exigencies and changes of time may require 
it. Formerly four deer-skins was the price of a large 
conch-shell bead, about the length and thickness of a 
man's fore-finger ; which they fixed to the crown of 
their head as an high ornament — so greatly they 
valued them. Their beads bear a very near resem- 
blance to ivory." 

When Cabeca de Vaca set out upon his trading ex- 
pedition he carried with him from the Gulf coast " cones 
and other pieces of sea-snail, conches used for cutting," 
and " sea-beads." These he traded away to the Indians 
inhabiting the interior, and in exchange received from 
them and brought back with him " skins, ochre with 
which they rub and color the face, hard canes of which 
to make arrows, sinews, cement and flint for the heads, 
and tassels of the hair of deer that by dyeing they make 
red." Wherever he journeyed, while thus employed, 
he received fair treatment at the hands of the natives, 
who — to use his own language — " gave me to eat out 
of regard to my commodities. The inhabitants were 
pleased when they saw me, and I had brought them 
what they wanted." On various occasions shell-beads 
were offered as presents by the Southern Indians to 
the Spaniards. 1 In this way they sought to propitiate 
their powerful invaders, and the gift was, in their esti- 
mation, among the most valuable of all their posses- 
sions. Among the articles regarded as " great riches" 

1 " Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, pp. 85, 86, 145, 146, 150, 194. New York, 1871. 



SHELL-MONEY. 



507 



by the inhabitants of Pacaha, Biedma enumerates 
" beads made of sea-snails." 1 

This shell-money was also extensively manufactured 
by some of the Northern Indians, and for a consider- 
able time circulated freely in the New-England colo- 
nies, in New York, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. Sev- 
eral interesting accounts of the value and use of this 
currency in that region, during the early days of Euro- 
pean colonization in America, have been preserved. 

The New-England Indians, writes Koger Williams, 2 
" are ignorant of Europe 's Coyne ; yet they have given 
a name to ours, and call it Monkish from the English 
Money. Their owne is of two sorts ; one white, which 
they make of the stem or stocke of the Eeriwincle, 
which they call Meteaxihok, when all the shell is broken 
off: and of this sort six of their small Beads (which 
they make with holes to string the bracelets) are cur- 
rant with the English for a peny. The second is black, 
incling to blew, which is made of the shell of a fish 
which some English call Hens, Poquauhock, and of this 
sort three make an English peny. They that live upon 
the Sea-side generally make of it, and as many make 
as will. 

"The Indians bring downe all their sorts of Furs 
which they take in the Countrey, both to the Indians 
and to the English for this Indian Money : this Money 
the English, French and Dutch trade to the Indians, 
six hundred miles in severall parts (North and South 
from New England) for their Furres, and whatsoever 
they stand in need of from them, as Corne, Venison, etc. 

" This one fathom of this their stringed money, 

1 "Narratives of the Career of Hernanjo de Soto," translated by Buckingham 
Smith, p. 252. New York, 1866. 

5 "A Key into the Language of America," etc., p. 144. London, 1643. 



508 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

now worth of the English but five shillings (sometimes 
more) some few yeeres since was worth nine and some- 
times ten shillings per Fathome. . . . Their white they 
call Wompam (which signifies white) ; their black 
Buckdubock (JSuchi signifying blacke). . . . Before 
ever they had Aivle-hlades from Europe they made 
shift to bore this their shell money with stone, and so 
fell their trees with stone set in a wooden staff, and 
used woden bowesP 

The money of the Massachusetts Indians is de- 
scribed by the Rev. Cotton Mather as consisting of 
"little beads with holes in them to string them upon 
a bracelet, whereof some are white, and of these there 
go six for a penny. Some are black or blue, and of 
these go three for a penny. This wampum, as they 
call it, is made of the shell-fish which lies upon the sea- 
coast continually." Nathaniel Morton 1 intimates that 
the Plymouth colony first acquired a distinct knowl- 
edge of the value and profit of the trade in wampam- 
peag from the Dutch in 1627, and denounces the " base- 
ness of sundry unworthy persons " who, in exchange 
for this shell-money, furnished the Indians with " guns, 
powder, and shot." So firm a hold, however, did this 
wampum — as a standard of values and as a convenient 
medium of exchange — soon take upon the commercial 
mind of the New-Englanders, that at an early period 
it was, by special enactment, treated as currency and 
made a legal tender in payment of debts not exceed- 
ing specified amounts. The wampum-trade was also 
farmed out to a company which, for the privilege of 
the monopoly, obligated itself to pay into the colonial 
treasury of Massachusetts ©ne-twentieth of all that 
was secured. 



1 "New England's Memoriall," etc., p. 67. Cambridge, 1669. 



SHELL-MONEY. 



509 



In his "Account of two Voyages to New Eng- 
land" Josselyn asserts that the natives made wam- 
pum so cunningly " that neither Jew nor devil " could 
counterfeit it. Subsequently, however, as Mr. Stevens 1 
properly remarks, this proved to be an idle boast, for 
a spurious imitation, very closely resembling real 
wampum, was introduced by the fur-traders at so low 
a price that the whole Indian country was soon flooded 
with it, destroying at once the value and meaning of 
real wampum. 

Burnaby, 2 who made his observations in 1759 and 
1760, describes the current money among the Indians 
as " made of the clam-shell consisting within of two 
colours, purple and white, and in form not unlike a 
thick oyster-shell. The process of manufacture is very 
simple. It is first clipped to a proper size, which is 
that of a small oblong parallelepiped, then drilled, and 
afterwards ground to a round, smooth surface, and pol- 
ished. The purple wampum is much more valuable 
than the white — a very small part of the shell being of 
that colour." 3 

Without multiplying authorities, it may be safely 
asserted that this shell-money was manufactured along 
the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, and on the 
Gulf coast certainly as far south as Central America. 
The use of this circulating medium was undoubtedly 
very general among the agricultural tribes east of the 
Mississippi River. The ancient sepulchral tumuli of 
Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and of other Southern 
States, as well as those located in the valley of the 

1 " Flint Chips," etc., p. 458. London, 1870. 

2 " Travels through the Middle Settlements in North America," etc., p. 60. 
London, 1775. 

3 Compare Carver's " Travels," etc., p. 362. London, 1778. LoskieFs " His- 
tory," etc., p. 26. London, 1794. 



510 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEKN INDIANS. 

Ohio and in valleys tributary both to it and to the 
Mississippi from the east, when opened, fully corrobo- 
rate the historical narrative, and afford physical proof 
that this product of the skill and the patience of the 
coast tribes — sought and obtained through trade-rela- 
tions — was thus, and by means of subsequent migra- 
tions, widely disseminated among the red-men dwell- 
ing far in the interior. After he crossed the Missis- 
sippi, Mr. Catlin 1 saw but very little wampum among 
the prairie Indians. " Amongst the numerous tribes," 
he states, " who have formerly inhabited the Atlantic 
coast and that part of the country which now consti- 
tutes the principal part of the United States, wampum 
has been invariably manufactured and highly valued 
as a circulating medium." 

West of the Rocky Mountains, however, some of 
the tribes " make use of various coloured shells, ground 
to an oval or nearly round shape." Belts of wampum 
were also regarded as standards of value, and accord- 
ing to these standards they exchanged property among 
themselves and with the traders. 2 Among the Indians 
of the Northwest coast the Dentalium formed a cur- 
rency. 3 

Taking the place of money, and constituting an 
acknowledged medium of exchange, these wampum 
beads served also as favorite and valuable decorations. 
Broad belts, variously and elaborately ornamented with 
such beads, were delivered at one time as title-deeds 
upon the alienation of a tract of land, at another time 
as solemn tokens in ratification of a treaty of peace; 

1 " Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North Ameri- 
can Indians," vol. i., p. 223, note. London, 1848. 

2 Hunter, " Memoirs of a Captivity," etc., p. 294. London, 1823. 

8 J. K. Lord, " Naturalist in British Columbia," vol. ii., pp. 25, 26. Stevens' 
" Flint Chips," p. 468, et seq. London, 1870. 



SHELL ORNAMENTS. 



511 



again, as pledges of friendship, as sacred attestations of 
an uttered vow, and as records of memorable events. 
In the latter case, each string of beads possessed an 
historical significance and was as intelligible as the 
knotted cord of the guipu. 

IX. As Ornaments. — While the shape and char- 
acteristic peculiarities of what is commonly called the 
wampum bead are readily recognized and clearly de- 
fined, it seems probable, at least among the Southern 
Indians, that all the various forms of shell beads, pen- 
dants, and ornaments, were highly prized both for per- 
sonal decoration and as objects of barter. -Rarely 
have I seen the purple or black wampum within the 
limits of Georgia, while hundreds of the white have 
been taken from sepulchral tumuli in various portions 
of the State. The Southern Indians, without doubt, 
expended no little time and toil in the manufacture of 
these shell ornaments. Consequently, the results of 
their taste and industry are numerous and interesting. 
Sharing in that passion for personal decoration which, 
in all ages, has so thoroughly possessed the breasts of 
both civilized and savage, they found in the pearly 
nacre and bright colors of marine and fluviatile shells 
the choicest material for the fabrication of beads, pen- 
dants, gorgets, armlets, pins, and various ornaments 
with which to bedeck their persons and habits. To 
these ornaments a twofold value appertained — the one 
inherent in the intrinsic beauty and durability of the 
shells themselves, the other born of the skill, ingenuity, 
and labor involved in their manufacture. Strings 1 of 
these shining and carefully-polished beads adorned the 
ears, necks, shoulders, elbows, arms, knees, ankles, 



1 " Admiranda Narratio," plates iii., vi. vii., viii., xvi., xviii., xxi, " Brevis 
Narratio," plates viii., xiv., xvi., xxxiv, xxxvii., xxxviii., xxxix. 



512 



AXTIQUITIES OF THE 



SOUTHEE^ 



INDIANS. 



wrists, waists, and robes of these rmniitive peoples, 
and were used to enhance the beauty, dignity, and 
riches of their idols. Both males and females delighted 
in the ownership of personal ornaments; and, when 
the grave opened to. receive those who claimed them, 
these prized possessions were deposited with the dead, 
that, amid the well- watered fields of fairer hunting- 
grounds, the departed might not lack the companion- 
ship of those things which pleased them most and con- 
stituted their chief treasures here. Tumuli and oblit- 
erated graves are now the storehouses whence are ob- 
tained supplies of these ornaments. Upon most of 
them the lapse of years, fire, and the moisture of the 
earth have wrought sad changes, and they are often 
but crumbling, discolored mockeries of former symme- 
try and beauty. 

Dwelling under warm skies, which permitted them 
to pass the greater part of the year in a state of almost 
entire nudity, the Southern Indians delighted in paint- 
ing their bodies with the most brilliant colors they 
could command. Their persons being uncovered, the 
fullest opportunity was afforded not only for the dis- 
play of skin ornamentation in various lines and curious 
devices, but also for the exhibition upon any part of 
the body of necklaces, gorgets, and sundry articles of 
shell, bone, and stone jewelry, if indeed that word may 
be properly used to describe these representatives of 
barbaric fancy. Hence the taste for personal decora- 
tion was more general and pronounced among them, 
than among their more northern brethren, whose prin- 
cipal labor in this regard was bestowed upon the orna- 
mentation of their clothing. 

The prevailing varieties of the shell beads found 
within the limits of Georgia are represented in Figs. 
14-19, Plate XXX. 



SHELL BEADS, 



513 



With the exception of the disk-shaped beads, all 
are perforated longitudinally, the diameters of the bores 
varying with the size of the ornament — seldom, how- 
ever, exceeding a quarter of an inch. Some of them 
are perforated both longitudinally and transversely. 
It is evident that, at the period of their manufacture, 
they were all carefully polished ; and while many have, 
with the lapse of years, been converted into a soft, 
white, chalky substance, others still retain their smooth 
surfaces, and in their present appearance closely resem- 
ble ivory, for which substance they were sometimes 
mistaken by the early observers. The column and 
walls of the Strombus gigas were freely used in the 
construction of the largest of these beads, not a few of 
which still bear the trace of the natural canal. Those 
of the elongated shape vary in length from a quarter 
of an inch to two inches and a half, and in diameter 
from one-sixth of an inch to one inch. The disk-shaped 
beads vary in thickness from the twelfth to the sixth 
of an inch, and in width from a quarter of an inch to 
an inch and a quarter. The forms varied with the fan- 
cies of the manufacturers, some beads being round, 
others ovoidal, others tubular, and others still, disk- 
shaped. 

Both Adair 1 and Lawson 3 unite in stating that the 
natives manufactured these beads out of conch-shells, 
and formed them into the desired shapes by rubbing 
them on hard stones. Before the introduction of me- 
tallic implements, Koger Williams 2 says the Indians: 
" made shift to bore this their shell money with stone ; " 

1 "History of the American Indians," etc., p. 170. London, 1775. 

2 "History of Carolina," p. 316. Raleigh reprint, 1S60. Briekel'fs "Natural 
History of North Carolina," p. 339. Dublin, 1737. 

3 "A Key into the Language of America," etc., p. 148. London, 1643. 

33 



514 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN - INDIANS. 



and, during the progress of the journey of Surveyor- 
General Lawson, 1 he observed the Carolina Indians 
drilling their beads by means of a nail stuck in the end 
of a cane or reed. The drill was rolled on the thigh 
with the right hand— the bit of shell being held in the 
left — and so, in the course of time, after the expendi- 
ture of much patience, the perforation was accom- 
plished. When we consider the amount of tedious 
labor necessarily involved in shaping, boring, and 
polishing these beads, we are prepared to appreciate 
the reason why they came to be regarded by the na- 
tives among their most precious treasures. It is not 
probable that the heated copper spindles, which the 
Spanish historians declare were used for the perfora- 
tion of pearls, could have proved serviceable in punc- 
turing these pieces of shell. The larger beads were 
drilled from opposite ends, the perforation being 
smaller in the centre than at the inception of the bore. 
There is no reason why at least some of them should 
not have been drilled in the manner commonly adopted 
for boring; stone. Either a solid or a hollow wooden 
drill, aided by sharp sand and water, would have com- 
passed the desired object; and in the case of the disk- 
shaped, round, and ovoidal beads, a drill made of a 
triangularly-pointed flint flake would have answered 
every purpose. 

Among the Southern Indians, irpon the authority 
of Adair, 2 in former times " a large conch-shell bead 
about the length and thickness of a man's fore-finger 
would purchase four deer skins." Beads of this sort 
were greatly valued, and were " fixed to the crown of 
the head as high ornaments." 

1 "History of Carolina," p. 316. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 
- * " History of American Indians," etc., p. 170. London, 1777. 



SHELL BEADS. SHELL GORGETS. 515 

Du Pratz 1 describes the ear-rings of the Indian 
women of Louisiana as being " made of the center 
part of a large shell, called burgo, which is about the 
thickness of one's little finger ; " and Father Hennepin, 2 
in his account of the customs of the natives of Louis- 
iana and Mississippi, states that "Women and Men, 
but above all, Young Girls, wear Necklaces of Shells 
about their Necks, of different Figures. They have 
also a sort of Shells as long as one's Finger, and hol- 
low like Pipes, which serve them for Pendants to hang 
in their Ears." 

While the longer varieties served as pendants and 
head-ornaments, the smaller were strung and worn as 
necklaces, bracelets, anklets, armlets, or used as deco- 
rations for moccasins, belts, and their clothing gener- 
ally. The number of these beads found in a single 
tumulus is surprising, and shows how many of them 
were at times owned by one individual. 3 

In obedience to the taste and skill of the Southern 
Indians, the shell assumed ornamental shapes other 
than those represented by the beads. Prominent 
among them are the gorgets — two varieties of which 
are here represented (see Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXX.). 
These, suspended by a string, were worn about the 
neck. Lawson 4 alludes to the existence of this class 
of ornaments among the Carolina Indians in his day, 
and comments upon the high commercial esteem in 
which they were held. He also calls attention to the 
fact that thereon was sometimes " engraven a cross, or 
some odd sort of figure which comes next in their 

1 " History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 232. London, 1763. 

2 " Continuation of the New Discovery," etc., p. 80. London, 1698. 

3 Compare Roger Williams' "Key into the Language of America," etc., p. 149- 
London, 1643. 

* "History of Carolina," etc., p. 315. Raleigh reprint, 1860. 



516 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

fancy." The Southern Indian priest wore upon his 
breast an ornament "made of a white conch-shell 
with two holes bored in the middle of it, through 
which he ran the ends of an otter-skin strap and fast- 
ened to the extremity of each a buck-horn white but- 
ton. 1 The natives of Virginia 8 manufactured round 
shell "Tablets of about four inches diameter," which 
they polished as smooth as their peak, and upon which 
they etched or graved " Circles, Stars, a Half-Moon, or 
any other figure suitable to their fancy." It is quite 
probable that the " figures of children and birds made 
of pearl," said by the Portuguese narrator to have been 
found by De Soto in the temple at Talomeco, were 
nothing more than beautiful gorgets, the personal orna- 
ments of the departed caciques and chieftains of Cutifa- 
chiqui who were there interred. 

The largest of these ornaments (Fig. 3, Plate XXX.), 
it will be perceived, is elliptical in shape — its diame- 
ters, measured in the direction of the major and minor 
axes, being respectively four inches and three inches 
and a half. It is about the eighth of an inch in thick, 
ness. In the upper edge are two holes — rather more 
than half an inch apart — by means of which it was 
suspended. The open-work and ornamentation are, 
we think, to be regarded rather as the expressions of 
the rude fancy of the workman, than as indications of 
any intelligent design or pictographic idea. These gor- 
gets were, at the period of their manufacture, carefully 
polished, and the ornamentation occurs on the inner or 
concave surface. This, then, was the side intended for 
display. The interior of the shell being lined with an 

1 Adair's "History of the American Indians," p. 84. London, 
a " History and Present State of Virginia," book iii., chapter xii., p. 59. Lon- 
don, 1105. 



SHELL GORGETS AND ARMLETS, 



517 



iridescent nacre, and that surface having been "by Na- 
ture polished beyond all art, was far more beautiful 
than the exterior, and was consequently selected for 
exhibition. This we believe to be the true interpreta- 
tion of the thought of these peoples in the use of such 
ornaments. Some of the gorgets are bored only in the 
centre ; others have holes both in the upper edge and 
in the central portion, which would indicate that they 
were sometimes suspended, and at other times worn 
as fixed ornaments attached to the head-dress or cloth- 
ing. In form, size, and ornamentation, these relics do 
but express the individual fancy of those by whom 
they were made; and while in the accompanying illus- 
tration we have indicated only two prevalent types, 
to wit, the elliptical and circular, we might mention 
others which are square, ovoidal, stellate, parallelo- 
grammic and irregular in shape, some with and some 
without scalloped edges, and others still which, care- 
lessly constructed and with a single hole in the centre, 
suggest the idea that they were designed as shell but- 
tons. 1 Closely allied to the gorgets are the shell arm- 
lets and anklets. 

Such is the peculiar shape of these ornaments that 
they appear by nature adapted to the curvature of the 
arm or leg. 

By means of a thong passing round the limb and 
through'the holes, they could have been readily worn 
in any desired position. Many were probably used, 
at pleasure, either in the manner we have suggested or 
as gorgets suspended from the neck or ears. 

Another variety of shell ornaments found in the 

1 See a description of similar ornaments found in sepulchral mounds in Ten- 
nessee, Fifth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum, p. 16, et seq. 
Boston, 1872. 



518 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHEEN INDIANS. 

Southern mounds is that which may be designated by 
the general name of Pins. Two forms are here rep- 
resented, the one pointed at either extremity and tu- 
mescent in the central portion (see Fig. 5, Plate XXX.), 
the other with one end terminating in a large, well- 
formed head, and the other tapering to a blunt point 
(see Figs. 6 and 7, Plate XXX.). Those with heads 
were made from the columellas of some big univalve, 
such as the Strombus gigas. The extreme length of 
the pin numbered 6, in Plate XXX., is five inches and 
a half, one incli of that distance being occupied by the 
head, which is an inch and a quarter in diameter. The 
shank is an inch and a half in circumference ; and, while 
tapering somewhat, is blunt at the point. Relics pre- 
cisely similar in shape were fashioned of soapstone. 
From the same tumulus pins made both of shell and 
stone have been taken. The pointed pins are usually 
smaller, seldom exceeding three inches in length, while 
those with heads vary in length from an inch and a 
half to six inches. These ornaments were at the time 
of their manufacture highly polished in every part. 
While their precise use is open to conjecture, we may 
safely conclude that they were intended as objects of 
display and personal decoration. 1 

Shells were frequently worn as ornaments without 
any material alteration of their natural forms. Among 
the Southern Indians the oliva and the margin ella (see 
Figs. 8 and 9, Plate XXX.) were extensively used as 
necklaces, bracelets, and anklets. The apices of the 
former were cut or rubbed off, and the backs of the 
latter ground so as to make a second hole or perfora- 



1 Bone pins somewhat analogous in form have been found in the Lake Dwell- 
ings of Switzerland. " Keller's Lake Dwellings," p. 174, plate liv., Fig. 33. Lon- 
don, 1866. 



UNFINISHED SHELL BEADS. 



519 



tion by means of which a thread of some sort could be 
conveniently introduced, and thus any desired number 
of the shells securely strung. 1 In several localities we 
have found the columns of large sea-shells cut off at 
the required lengths, partially fashioned and imper- 
forate, which were evidently obtained in this imperfect 
condition from the primitive shell-merchantmen and 
kept for polish and completion, at some ' future time, 
by the purchasers. (See Figs. 10, 11, and 12, Plate 
XXX.) Cabega de Vaca alludes to a trade in such 
articles, and the banks of the Ocmulgee near Macon, 
and of the Chattahoochee far up among the beautiful 
valleys of Cherokee Georgia, as well as the sites of 
many old Indian villages, bear present testimony to the 
truth of his narrative and to the extensive character of 
this ancient traffic in unfinished shell beads. 

We might enumerate other shell trinkets, but they 
are matters rather of curiosity than of archaeological 
value. 

Beads were also manufactured of stone, clay, bone, 
and wood. Those of stone were generally made of 
soapstone, are globular in shape, and about three-quar- 
ters of an inch in diameter. The clay beads are circular 
in form, the upper and lower sides being fiat, are per- 
forated through the centre, are from a quarter to half 
an inch in thickness, and vary in size from half an inch 
to an inch and a half in diameter. When these disk- 
like beads were strung in quantities, only the edges 

1 Compare "Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i., p. 360, 
New York, 1845. "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," p. 233. Wil- 
son's " Prehistoric Man," pp. 129,141, London, 1865. Stevens' "Flint Chips," 
p. 454, London, 1870. " Smithsonian Report for 1868," p. 404. Venegas' " Na- 
tural and Civil History of California," vol. i., pp. 71, 73, London, 1759. Henne- 
pin's "Continuation of the New Discovery," p. 80, London, 1698. "Narratives 
of the Career of Hernando de Soto," etc., translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 
252, New York, 1863. 



520 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



would appear. Bone beads were cut in desired lengths 
from the wing-bone of a large bird or from the small 
bone of the leg of a deer or other animal. Their perfora- 
tions are longitudinal, and the ornaments when finished 
were carefully polished. {See Fig. 13, Plate XXX.) 

Human teeth, and the teeth and claws of bears and 
the spurs of the turkey-cock, were perforated and worn 
as pendants. Youths frequently bedecked themselves 
with bracelets made of the ribs of deer, which were 
boiled, bent into the desired shapes, and then polished 
so as to look like ivory. 1 

In comparatively recent sepultures European beads 
of glass and porcelain are not infrequent. Black, blue, 
white, and red, are the predominating colors. Many 
are enamelled, and are evidently Venetian in their 
origin. With these European beads the white wam- 
pum and other shell beads are often found inter- 
mingled. Portions of strings of rosary-beads also 
occur, which were doubtless obtained at an early period 
through religious commerce with the Spanish priests. 

Secondary interments upon the tops and sides of an- 
cient tumuli, and many Indian graves in Cherokee Geor- 
gia contain ornaments of silver and brass, consisting of 
corrugated bracelets, ear and finger rings, pendants, 
buckles, clasps, bosses, and gorgets. In most of them we 
recognize how sedulously the European manufacturer 
pandered to the barbaric tastes of these primitive peo- 
ples. 

In the Etowah Valley gold beads have been found 
which were clearly the handiwork of the natives. 
Copper pendants also are occasionally unearthed in 
Nacoochee and other valleys in Upper Georgia. In 
all instances of this character, as we have already re- 

1 Du Pratz, "History of Louisiana," vol. ii., p. 233. London, 1753. 



OBITAMENTS. 



521 



marked, tlie metal was treated without the application 
of heat, and was simply hammered into the desired 
shape. Among the Aboriginal tribes of this region, 
prior to commerce with Europeans, the use of metallic 
ornaments and implements was limited. 

Adair 1 assures us that in the olden time quartz- 
crystals (or, to use his own language, " such coarse 
diamonds as their own hilly country produced ") were 
freely used. They were fastened by means of deer- 
sinews to the hair, nose, ears, moccasins, and various 
parts of the dress. The truth of this statement is 
attested by the contents of many mounds which we 
have opened. Mr. At water is correct when he sup- 
poses that the circular aggregation of crystals which 
he figures on page 233 of Volume I. of the " Arehse- 
oloaia Americana," was worn as an ornament. AYe 
have in our collection a beautiful specimen of this 
character taken from a Georgia burial-mound located 
two hundred miles away from any point whence the 
quartz-crystals could have been obtained. The holes 
in the lobes of the ears of the women were small, but 
the men were in the habit of cutting out the entire 
interior of the lobes of their ears, and then inserting 
large tufts of buffalo's-wool mixed with bear's-grease, 
so as to distend the aperture to the utmost degree. 2 
Into these, when healed, they would introduce bunches 
of beautiful feathers, large rings, joints of cane gaudily 
colored, and the inflated bladders of fishes. 3 In the ex- 
planatory note accompanying plate xxxviii. of the " Bre- 
vis Narratio," we are informed that both men and wom- 
en wore these fish-bladders in their ears, and that when 

1 "History of the American Indians," etc, pp. 170, 171. London, 1775. 
3 Adair's " History of the American Indians," etc., p. 171. London, 1775. 
3 "Brevis Xarratio," plates viii., xi., xii., xy., xvi., xviii., xxvii., xxviii., xxxii., 
xxxiv., xxxv., xxxix. 



522 



ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 



inflated they shone like pearls. Sometimes they were 
colored red, and then they resembled carbuncles. The 
first joint of an eagle's leg, 1 with the talons attached, 
formed a favorite ear-ornament with the Southern war- 
rior. 

Cabeca de Vaca 3 observed some of the Florida 
Indians with their nipples and under lips bored, and 
wearing pieces of cane in the openings. Pendants of 
various sorts from the nose and under lip were custom- 
ary, and it may be that lip-stones, after the fashion of 
the Mexicans, were also used as personal decorations. 

CONCLUSION. 

As it comports not with the plan proposed and 
adopted in the execution of this work, we refrain from 
entering upon a discussion of the interesting inquiry, 
Whence came the red-men who first peopled this por- 
tion of North America ? 

Our object has been to present a general descrip- 
tion of the Southern Indians as they appeared when 
the Europeans first ventured among them, and to in- 
terpret their relics in the light of early recorded obser- 
vations and of customs not obsolete at the date of the 
Spanish, French, and English colonizations. 

Comparing the manners and temper of the South- 
ern Indians with those of the more Northern tribes 
which he visited, Father Hennepin pronounces the 
former " Civil, Easie, Tractable and capable of instruc- 
tions," while the latter are declared " mere Brutes as 
fierce and cruel as any wild Beasts." 3 Enjoying 
those physical blessings which are bestowed by warm 
skies, luxuriant vegetation and abundant animal life, 

1 " Brevis Narratio," etc., plate xiv. 

2 " Relation," etc.,translated by Buckingham Smith, p. 75. New York ,1811. 
8 "New Discovery," etc., p. 157. London, 1698. 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 523 

the Southern Indians were in great measure relieved 
of those perpetual struggles for covering and food 
which have such a decided tendency to harden the 
condition of the savage, embitter his existence, and 
render him an Ishmaelite even among his own fellows. 
To the soft airs which surrounded them and the gener- 
ous trees which alike in winter and summer threw their 
protecting arms about them, to the food-treasures of 
the water and the forests — ever present to supply 
with little effort their simple wants — and to the spon- 
taneous productions of a fertile soil, were these peo- 
ples largely indebted for the pleasure-loving disposi- 
tion and the imaginative temperament they possessed, 
and for the gentle lives they were permitted to lead. 
Exempt from trials incident to a rigorous climate and 
an inhospitable country, the}^ were able to devote much 
of their time to amusements and social enjoyment, and 
to the development of a degree of taste and skill in 
manufacture superior to that exhibited by their North- 
ern neighbors. Upon a careful comparison of the an- 
tiquities of the Southern nations with those of the 
Northern tribes, we think a greater variety and excel- 
lence of manufacture, a more diversified expression of 
fancy in ornamentation, a more careful selection of 
beautiful material, a superior delicacy and finish in the 
fabrication of implements, both, chipped and polished, 
a more pronounced exhibition of combined labor in 
the erection of tumuli, a more despotic form of gov- 
ernment, a greater permanency of seats, a more liberal 
expenditure of care and attention in the cultivation of 
the soil, a more decided system of worship, and a more 
dignified observance of significant festivals and funeral 
customs may fairly be claimed for the former. We are 
acquainted with no region north and east of the Rio 



524 ANTIQUITIES OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 

Grande in which the earliest exhibitions of skill and 
taste in the manufacture of implements and ornaments 
of stone, shell, and bone, are more varied and attrac- 
tive, where pipe-making claimed such special attention, 
and where the antique pottery is indicative of such 
diversity of form and ornamentation, and possessed of 
such homogeneousness of composition and durability. 

Our observations have been, perhaps, too general, 
and not sufficiently minute, to satisfy either our own 
wish or the intelligent desire of those in quest of 
specific information touching the interesting subjects 
of which we have essayed to treat. Sufficient has 
been said, however, we trust, to afford the inquirer a 
tolerable conception of the antiquities of the region 
which has formed the field of research. So manifold 
are the exhibitions of fancy and use among the stone 
implements, so frequent the modifications of well- 
defined types, and so varied the traces of early con- 
structive skill, that were we to pursue the investiga- 
tion with that detail which characterizes the recent 
and most valuable work of Mr. Evans upon the an- 
cient stone implements of Great Britain, we would 
scarcely be able to assign a reasonable limit either to the 
descriptions or to the illustrations which would be sug- 
gested. A particular consideration of hammer-stones, 
mauls, sling-stones, whet stones, and of minor relics, 
as well as of unfinished objects, such as flint chips, 
wasters, etc., has been omitted. " Flakes and splinters 
of silicious stone, whether flint, jasjjer, chert, iron-stone, 
quartzite, or obsidian, are to be found in almost all 
known countries, and belong to all ages. They are, in 
fact, the most catholic of all stone implements, and 
have been in use ' semper, ubique et ab omnibus.' " 1 



1 Evans 1 " Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain," p. 257. London, 1872. 



BULLET— MOULD. 



525 



The objects which we have selected for illustration 
are designed to convey a suitable idea of prevailing 
types, not abnormal forms. For this purpose we have 
used such originals as are in our own possession, re- 
fraining entirely from reproducing a single illustration 
which has appeared elsewhere. For the genuineness 
of these relics and the accuracy of the drawings we 
stand personally pledged. Of the relics obtained 
through early commerce with Europeans, and found 
in the graves of modern Indians, much might be said: 
but these belong to a transition period and do not 
properly claim present attention. There are other 
relics, the product of the labor and the ingenuity of 
the red-men in their effort to satisfy wants suggested 
by personal intercourse with these strangers. Of these 
a bullet-mould, taken from an Indian grave in Oos- 
tenaula Valley, may be mentioned as an example. 
Made of soapstone, it contains thirteen matrices for 
running shot and balls, varying in size from a swan- 
shot to an ounce-ball. These cavities are carefully 
and regularly cut, and the entire arrangement is most 
creditable to the workman who, in the absence of a 
metallic bullet-mould, was able, in the exercise of his 
native ingenuity and skill, to manufacture an article 
out of a material with which he was entirely familiar, 
so cleverly answering the use which contact with the 
whites had taught him to understand and to require. 

American archaeology is as yet in its infancy, and 
there are, on every hand, inviting fields in which in- 
telligent observers may reap rich harvests. If these 
pages shall minister to the entertainment of the gen- 
eral reader, and contribute aught of value to the in- 
formation of the careful student, the pleasurable labors 
of the author will not have been entirely in vain. 



GENEKAL INDEX. 



A. 

Aconithus, mound at, 119. 

Adair, James, 8, 19, 86, 115, 251, 

273, 300, 309, 333, 341, 418, 505. 
Adultery, punishment of, 66, 67. 
Adze, 277. 
Agamemnon, 119. 
Agriculture, 296-320. 
Agricultural implements, 301-303, 

500. 

Agricultural labors, 41, 307. 
Alexander the Great, 120. 
Alibamons, 31. 
Alyattes, 119. 
Amexias, 45. 
Amulets, 372, 373. 
Anasco, 247. 
Anklets, 517. 
Appalatcy, 229. 
Archdale, Governor, 2. 
Archery, 245-250. 
Armlets, 517. 

Armories, at Talomeco, 26. 

Arrows, of the Florida Indians, 18; 
manufacture of, 245-259. 

Arrow-heads, 240; general distri- 
bution of, 240-242 ; where manu- 
factured, 242, 243 ; articles of 
commerce, 243 ; of what materials 
made, 244, 247, 249, 250, 256; 
typical forms of, 254, 265-267; 
size of, 257 ; how attached to 
shafts, 257 ; how manufactured, 
259-265. 

Arrow-makers, 243. 

Arrow-shafts, stones for rounding, 
366, 367. 

Arrow-stems, of cane, 255. 

Artachies, 119. 

Articles of dress, 61. 



Ash, Thomas, 250, 322, 422 
Assembly-room, 15. 
At water, Caleb, 436. 
Awls, 291, 292. 

Axes, stone, 269-286 ; general dis- 
tribution of, 269 ; how made and 
hafted, 270-273; grooved, 274- 
278 ; size of, 275 ; how sharpened, 
277 ; wedge-shaped, or stone celts, 
278-281 ; with stone handle, 280 ; 
perforated or ceremonial, 281- 
284. 

B. 

Baegert, Jacob, 863. 
Ball-play, 96-98. 

Bartram, William, 3, 8, 20, 41, 123, 

150, 178, 190, 216, 316, 328, 417. 
Baskets, manufacture of, 225. 
Beads, of European manufacture, 

235-237, 520; of shell, 511-514; 

of stone, bone, and clay, 519 ; of 

gold, etc., 520. 
Beckwith, Lieutenant, 263. 
Beverley, 250, 270, 362, 470, 502. 
Biedma, Luys Hernandez de, 235. 

469. 

Black-drink, 11, 15. 

Blackmoor's teeth, 337. 

Blankets, of buffalo's- wool and tu:*- 

key-feathers, 87. 
Blow-guns, 256, 257. 
Bolzius, Eev. Martin, 417. 
Bone houses, 113, 191. 
Boos-ke-tau, feast of the,- 99, 303- 

307. 

Borers, 291, 292. 

Borysthenes, Scythian tombs on the 

banks of the, 119. 
Bossu, Captain, 184, 256, 271, 323. 



GENERAL IXDEX. 



527 



Bows, 245-257. 

Bread, preparation of maize fur 
making, 310, 311. 

Breech clouts, 74, 75, 81, 86. 

Brickell, Dr. John, 329. 

Brinton, Dr. D. G., 230. 

Browne, Sir Thomas, 118. 

Brown's Mount, fortitication on, 
163-165. 

Bullet-mould, 525. 

Burial of the dead in a sitting pos- 
ture, 183-185. 

Burial-£rround on the Georgia coast, 
205-207. 

Burial-urns, 454-456. 

C. 

Calabashes, 445, 464. 

Calumets, 386-393; typical forms 

of, 404-408; how drilled, 408, 

409. 

Calumet-dance, 388-390. 

Canoe, ancient, dug up in Savannah 

River swamp, 53-57. 
Canoes, 53-61 ; manufacture of, by 

Virginia Indians, 55. 
Capital punishment, 13. 
Carpets, 86. 
Cassis flammea, 233. 
Catawbas, 2. 

Catlin, George, 261, 369, 462. 
Catlinite, 407. 
Celts, 278-281. 
Chaouanons, 222. 
Charlevoix, Father, 23, 428. 
Chateaubriand, Viscount de, 204. 
Chenco, game of, 346. 
Cherokees, 2, 7, 8 ; territory of the, 

6 ; phvsical characteristics of the, 

9. 

Cherokee chief, funeral obsequies of 

a, 115. 
Chickasaws, 2, 3. 
Chieftain-mounds, 183-188. 
Chisca, 229. 
Chisels, 286-288, 496. 
Choctaws, 2, 256 ; origin of the, 5. 
Chungke-game, 96, 341-346, 356, 

357. 

Chunky-yard«, 178-181. 
Circular earthwork on the head- 
waters of the Ogeechee River, 148. 
Clavigero, 227. 
Columbus, 476. 
Coniurer, the office of, 28. 
Cooking, 308-311. 



! Copper, treated as a malleable stone, 
47, 227, 231 ; use of, among the 
Southern Indians, 227-233 ; axes 
of, 281 ; implement of, from 
stone grave in Nacoochee Valley, 
225-227; from the Etowah Val- 
ley, 232 ; pendants of, 233 ; rods 
of, 232. 

Coreal, Francois, 29, 352. 

Costume, 71-89. 

Council-house, 11. 

Counting, 101. 

Co we, council-house of, 125. 

Craven, Governor, 3. 

Crawfish, mode of takiug, 336. 

Creeks, 2, 6. 

Creek Confederacy, territory of the, 
3-6 ; tribes composing the, 6. 

Cremation, 101, 189-192, 411. 

Cupping- tubes, 361. 

Cutifachiqui, the Cacica of, 24, 71, 
148, 149, 247. 

D. 

Dablon. Father, 387. 
Daggers, 267. 

Dances, various kinds of, 92-96, 388 
-390. 

Davis, Dr. E. H., 232. 
DeBrahm, William Gerar, 6, 39, 83, 
421. 

De Brv, 11, 209-211. 

De Soto, 24, 25, 142, 149, 235, 468. 

Dentalium, use of the, 510. 

Devil, worship of the, 21. 

Discoidal stones, 341-358 ; not ex- 
empt from sepulture, 343, 3^.6, 
347 ; various forms of, 348-351 ; 
applied to secondary uses, 351, 
352. 

Divorce, 66. 

Domenech, Abbe Em, 351. 
Dorantes, Andres, 229. 
Drift-implements, 293-295. 
Drilling in stone, 408. 
Drills, solid and hollow, 408-410. 
Drinking-cups, 233, 498. 
Drums, 90, 91. 

Dug-outs, or wooden boats, manu- 
facture and use of, by the South- 
ern Indians, 53-61. 

Dumont, 462. 

Du Pratz, M. Le Page, 78, 105, 211, 

272, 302, 345. 
Dwellings of the Florida Indians ; 

35, 37 ; of the Virginia Indians, 



528 



GENERAL ESDEX. 



36 ; of the Carolina tribes, 37, 38; 
of the Georgia tribes, 39. 
Dyeing, art of, 63, 88. 

E. 

Ear-ornaments, 88, 515, 521. 
Earth-walls, 212. 
Edistoes, 2. 
Efau-Haujo, 420. 

Elevations for chieftain-houses, 122, 

126. 
Elf-stones, 251. 

Elvas, the Gentleman of, 18, 25, 

142, 229, 246, 300. 
Emetic, prepared from calcined 

shells, 29. 
Enchanted mountain, 377. 
Enclosed work on Plunkett Creek, 

147. 

Etowah idol, 432-434. 
Etowah mounds, 136-143. 
European axes, 285. 
Evans, John, 524. 

F. 

Family or tribal mounds, 189. 
Feasts, monthly, among the Natchez, 

99, 100. 
Feather mantles, 61, 87. 
Festivals, 99, 100. 

Fire, veneration of, 21 ; new lighted 
at the feast of the Boos-ke-tau, 99. 

Fishing, various modes of, 325-340. 

Fish-gigs, 329, 330. 

Fish-hooks, 326, 327. 

Fishing-plummets, 328. 

Fish-preserves, 142, 143, 156, 175, 
325. 

Fish-traps, 330-334. 
Flutes, 90. 
Fontaneda, 469. 

Food, animal, 42, 43; vegetable, 

44, 308, 311. 
Fort James, ancient monuments 

near, 123. 
Fortification on Brown's Mount, 

163-165. 

Funeral customs, 101-117, 132, 183 
-185, 190-192, 203; among the 
Choctaws, 104, 112, 113, 190; 
among the Natchez, 105 ; among 
the Virginia tribes, 108; among 
the Carolina tribes, 108-111, 184 ; 
among the Muscogulges, 113, 184; 
among the Alibamons, 114, 184; 



among the Chickasaws, 114; 
among the Cherokees, 114-116, 
185 ; carefully observed, 116, 190! 
Funeral-scaffolds, 112. 

G. 

Gallatin, Albert, 3, 6. 

Galphin, Fort, 151. • 

Game, chungke, 96, 341-346, 356, 

357; of the javelin, 354 ; of the 

pole, 345 ; of nettecawaw, 346 ; 

of the spear and ring, 355. 
Gaming, 98, 99. 
Garcilasso, 122, 471. 
Gardens, private, 42, 299-301. 
Georgia, original boundaries of the 

Colony of, 7. — 
Gold beads, 47. 
Gorgets, 515-517. 

Gouges of stone and bone, 287, 288 ; 

of shell, 496. 
Government, system of, obtaining 

among the Southern Indians, 10. 
Granaries, public, 41, 307. 
Grapes, 45. 

Graves, 113 ; veneration and attach- 
ment for, 116, 117, 204, 205. 
Grave-mounds, 101-105. 
Grooved axes, 274-278. 
Guyachoya, Cacique of, 24. 
Gygaean Lake, 119. 

H. 

Hammers, 265. 

Hand-axes, 278-281. 

Hand-nets, 335, 336. 

Hariot, Thomas, 17, 26, 30, 76, 316. 

Harvesting the maize, 307. 

Hatchets, 281-284. 

Hawkins, Colonel Benjamin, 14, 65. 

Haywood, 84-86, 216, 346, 360, 437. 

Head- warriors, 16. 

Hennepin, Father, 230, 270, 828, 

386, 470. 
Hephsestion, 120. 
Herodotus, 119. 
Hickory-nut-oil, 45, 316. 
High-priest, office and duties of 

the, 19. 
Hired mourners, 111. 
Hitchittees, origin of the, 4. 
Hoes, 301. 
Homer, 120. 
Horn bells, 92. 

Hospitality of the Southern Indians, 
42. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



521) 



Hot-houses, 15. 

Human sacrifices, 23, 24. 

Human remains found in a cave in 

Tennessee, 84-86. 
Hunter, John D., 461. 
Hunting, 322. 

I. 

Idol-pipes, 401-403. 

Idol- shrines, 431, 500. 

Images, 140, 146, 430-440. 

Image- worship, 22, 413-415, 417- 

419, 423-430. 
Immortality of the soul, belief in 

the, 21. 

Incised trenches on Stone Mountain, 
380. 

Intaglios, 63, 377-399. 
Iron, no knowledge of, 47. 

J. 

Jaoiianas, 29, 30. 
Jars, 457. 
Javelin-game, 354. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 193, 436. 
Jones, Prof. Joseph, M. D., 221-223, 

233, 268, 280, 439, 458. 
Jugglers, 31. 

K. 

Kiwasa, the idol, 26, 426. 
Knives, flint, 290, 291, 496. 

L. 

Lafiteau, 271. 
La Hontan, 192. 

Lake Superior, ancient mining on 

the shores of, 232. 
Land, tenure of, 40. 
Laudonniere, 249. 

Lnwson, Surveyor-General, 2, 31, 

80, 109, 328, 423-425, 504, 505. 
Leaf-shaped implements, 291, 302. 
Lee, Colonel Henry, 151. 
Lip-stones, 88, 522. 
Longfellow, H. W., 384. 
Loskiel, 270, 332. 
Lubbock, Sir John, 268, 414, 444. 
Lyon, Caleb, 263. 

M. 

Maize, cultivation of, 297-301 ; har- 
vesting of the, 307 ; preparation 

34 



of, for food, 308-314; varieties of, 
310. 

Maize-crushers, 314. 

Marginella, use of the, as a bead, 518. 

Marriage, 65-69. 

Matting, cane, 225. 

Mauilla, 211. 

Maxwell, Major J. A., 166. 
Mechanical labor of the Southern 

Indians, 46-53. 
Medicine-men, 28-33. 
Medicine-tubes, 359-365. 
Medicinal plants, 34. 
Megalithic monuments, absence cf, 

127. 

Messier's Mound, 166-174. 

Mica membranacea, 376. 

Mico, office and powers of the, 11- 
13 ; duties of the Creek, 14 ; cabin 
of the, 15 ; selection of an assist- 
ant for the, 14. 

Mining, ancient, in Duke's Creek 
Valley, 48 ; in Valley-River Val- 
ley, 48. 

Mirrors, 376, 377. 

Moats, ancient, 136, 146, 155, 170, 
171. 

Money, shell, 501-511. 

Mortars, 309-314. 

Moscoso, Luys de, 24. 

Mound - builders, 135, 161, 176; 

skull of one of the, 160. 
Mound-building, 118 ; in Georgia, 

121 ; within the historic period, 

130-132. 

Mounds, on the Colonel's Island, 
129 ; in the Etowah Valley, 136- 
142 ; in the valley of Little Shoul- 
der-bone Creek, 143 ; on Plun- 
kett Creek, 147 ; on Mason's 
plantation, 153-157 ; on the Oc- 
mulgee River opposite Macon, 
158-162 ; on Lamar's plantation, 
162; on Messier's plantation, 166 
-174; of observation and retreat, 
181, 182; sepulchral, 183; chief- 
tain or priest, 183 ; family or 
tribal, 189-192; on the low 
grounds of the Rivanna, 193 ; on 
Stalling's Island, 197 ; of shell, 
195-200 ; of stone, 202; in Nacoo- 
chee Valley, 213 ; at the junction 
of the Etowah and Oostenaula 
Rivers, 253. 

Muscogee Confederacy, 2. 

Muscogees, origin of the, 4; physi- 
cal characteristics of the, 9, 10. 



530 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Music, 90. 

Musical instruments, 90-92. 
N. 

Nacoochee Valley, mound in, 213; 

stone graves in, 214-224. 
Narvaez, Panphilo de, 116. 
Natchez, 2 ; the sun among the, 22- 

31. 

Nets, 143, 328, 335-337, 339. 
Net-sinkers, 337-340. 
Nettecawaw, game of, 346. 
New fire, origin of, 420. 
Nichols, Captain J. H., 214. 
Nipples, bored, 88. 
Nose-ornaments, 88. 
Nunez, Yasco, 476. 
Nut-stones, 315-320. , 

O. 

Offering of the stag, 21, 22. • 
Oglethorpe, General, 3,86, 131, 188, 

189, 417, 421. 
Oliva, the use of the, as a bead, 518. 
Open-air workshops, 242. 
Orestes, 119. 
Ornamental tubes, 365. 
Ornamentation of primitive pottery, 

444. 

Ornaments, 71-89; of shell, 511- 
519; of European manufacture, 
520. 

Ortiz, Juan, 116." 

P. 

Pacaha, 142. 
Painting, 63. 

Palanquin, use of the, 72, 73. 

Paria, the coast of, 475. 

Patroclus, the burial of, 120. 

Peace, how concluded, 15. 

Pearls, 149 ; use of, as ornaments, 
among the Southern Indians, 467- 
494 ; large numbers of, found in 
the possession of the natives and 
in the graves of their dead, 467- 
481 ; method of procuring, 471, 
472, 476 ; diving for, 477 ; trade 
in, 482 ; obtained from both ma- 
rine and fluviatile shells, 481-490 ; 
found in relic-beds and ancient 
graves, 491. 

Pear-shaped stones, 371, 372. 

Perforated axes, 281-284. 

Personal property deposited with 
the dead, 102, 185. 



Pestles, 314. 

Pendants, of copper, 233 ; of stone, 
370, 371. 

Physicians, 28-33. 

Pierced tablets, 367-370. 

Pins, of shell, 233,234; of soap- 
stone, 233, 234. 

Pipe-stem carrier, 409. 

Pipes, 383-412 ; origin and uses of, 
383-385; how made, 408; how 
drilled, 407-410 ; calumets, 386- 
393; typical forms of, 404-407; 
idol-pipes, 401-403 ; ordinary or 
common pipes, 394; tvpical forms 
of, 410-412. 

Pits, 187. 

Plates, stone, 373-376. 
Platters, 374. 

Pocahontas, dance of, 94, 95. 
Poisoning fish, 327, 333. 
Polishing-stones, 292, 293. 
Polygamy, 68. 
Population, aboriginal, 128. 
Pots of terra-cotta, 457. 
Potter's wheel, use of the, unknown, 
47. 

Pottery, manufacture of, 46; general 
description of, among the Southern 
Indians, 441-466 ; an index of the 
degree of civilization, 440; histor- 
ical value of, 443 ; ornamentation 
of, 444, 458, 459 ; use of, 445- 
451 ; manufacture of, 451, 461- 
464, 501 ; kilns for baking, 452, 
453 ; various sizes of articles of, 
453; burial-urns, 454-456; pots, 
456, 457 ; flat-bottomed jars, 457 ; 
typical forms of Southern, 458; 
vessels of soapstone, 460 ; de- 
stroyed by cremation, 465, 466. 

Priapus, worship of the, 439. 

Priest-mounds, 187. 

Public buildings in Creek villages, 
15, 16. 

Public deliberations, 15. 

Public granaries, 41. 

Public overseer, 41. 

q: 

Quivers, 258. 

R. 

Rattles, 91 ; of gourds, 91 ; of ter- 
rapin-shells, 92, 500. 

Ran, Prof. Charles, 64, 218-220, 
302, 338, 363, 369, 408, 433, 452, 
458. 



GENERAL IXDEX. 



531 



Refuse-piles, 200, 201. 
Religious ideas, 20-24, 416, 430. 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 127. 
Ribas, 362. 

Ribault, Captain, 37, 229, 299, 330. 
Rock-walls, 207-209. 
Rock-writing, 62. 
Roe-deer, stalking of the, 323. 
Roguet, 464. 

Romans, Captain Bernard, 6, 46, 83, 

92, 112, 256, 344. 
Rosaries, 236. 

S. 

Sacrifice of the fir-t-born male child, 
13. 

Salt, manufacture of, 45, 46. 
Savannahs, the, 2. 
Saws, 292. 
Scenauki, 69. 

Schoolcraft, H. R., 260, 439. 

Scrapers, 288-290, 496. 

Sculptured rocks, 377-380. 

Secondary interments, 103, 126, 131, 
145, 160. 

Seminoles, the, 2, 4. 

Sepulchral mounds, 183-. 

Shawls, 61, 73. 

Shawnoes, the, 7. 

Shea, John Gilmary, 387. 

Shell drinking-cups, 233. 

Shell-heaps, 200, 201, 483. 

Shell-mounds, 195-200. 

Shell ornaments, 162. 

Shell pins, 233, 518. 

Shells, primitive uses of, 495-519 ; 
as gouges, chisels, scrapers, and 
knives, 496-498 ; as drinking-cups, 
498-500 ; as spoons, 500 ; as ag- 
ricultural implements, 500 ; as 
rattles, 500; as shrines for idols, 
500 ; as an element of strength in 
the manufacture of earthen-ware, 
501; as money, 501-511; trade 
in, 506; as ornaments, 511-519; 
beads of, 511 ; typical forms of 
shell beads, 512 ; how perforated, 
513, 514; ear-rings, 515 ; gorgets, 
515-517; armlets and anklets, 
517; pins, 518; unfinished shell 
beads, as articles of commerce, 
519. 

Shoes, 77, 79, 81. 

Sick, treatment of the, 28-33, 362- 
364. 

Silver Bluff, 123, 148. 



Sinkers, perforated and grooved, 
337-340. 

Skins, preparation of, 62. 

Skull of modern Indian, 100; of 
mound-builder, 160 161. 

Slave-posts in chunky-yards, 179. 

Sling-stones, 371. 

Slung-shots, 371, 372. 

Smith, Capt. John, 76, 91, 230, 260. 

Smoking, 393-399, 410. 

Sinootbing-stones, 292, 293. 

Southern Indians, physical charac- 
teristics of the, 8. 

Spades, stone, 302. 

Spanish invasions, effect of the, upon 
the Indian population, 177. 

Spears used in capturing fish, 328, 
334. 

Spear-heads, 240, 252,253; typical 
forms of, 253,254; how made, 
259-265. 

Spindle-whorls, 235. 

Spinning, 87. 

Spiral fire, 15. 

Spoons, 500. 

Squier, Hon. E. George, 232. 
Squier and Davis, Messrs., 318, 354. 
Stalllng's Island, shell-mound on, 
197. 

Statues, wooden, at Talomeco, 25. 
Stones for rounding arrow-shafts, 
366, 367. 

Stones upon which nuts were crack- 
ed, 315-320. , 

Stone graves, 214-238; in JSTacoo- 
chee Valley, 214; age of, 238; in 
the environs of Keowe, 216; in 
Tennessee, 216-221; in Missouri, 
217; in Illinois, 218-220; in Eu- 
rope, 224. 

Stone heaps, 114, 202. 

Stone Mountain, 207, 380. 

Stone tumulus near Sparta, Georgia, 
148. 

Stonoes, the, 2. 

Storehouses, 12, SOS. 

Stung-Serpent, funeral obsequies of 
the, 105-107. 

Successive inhumations, 193. 

Summer-houses, 35. 

Sun, office of the, among the Natch- 
ez, 23, 24 ; worship or' the, 20, 21, 
422, 427-429 ; truncated pyramids 
erected in honor of the, 22. 

Supreme Being, conceptions of a, 
417-419. 

Sword, stone, 268. 



532 



GEXEEAL INDEX. 



T. 

Tacitus, 341. 

Talomeco, mausoleum of, 25, 230. 

Tambours, 91. 

Tattooing, 75, 80. 

Temple of the Natchez, 427-429. 

Temple-mounds, 138, 142, 158. 

Terra-cotta, vessels of, 454-466. 

Terron, Juan, 473. 

Timberlake, Lieutenant, 251, 285, 

346,419. 
Time, how reckoned, 100, 1?1. 
Toalli, dwellings of, 35. 
Tobacco, 44, 393-399. 
Tomahawks, 277. 

Tombs of the Virginia kings, 26, 27, 
Tomo-chi-chi, 69, 131, 185, 188, 189, 
421. 

Tonti, the Chevalier, 248. 

Town-plantation, 41. 

Towns of the Florida Indians, 35, 
37; of the Virginia Indians, 36; 
of the Carolina tribes, 37. 

Trade relations, 63, 64, 162, 238, 
243,506. 

Tribal or family mounds, 189. 

Triturating-stones, 314. 

Troost, Professor, 216, 488. 

Tubes, stone, 359-365. 

Tumlin, Colonel Lewis, 136. 

Tumuli, ancient, in Georgia, 121; 
Bartram's account of, 123-125; 
secondare uses of, 126, 160; gen- 
eral distribution of, 127-129 ; as- 
sociated in groups, 129 ; shapes 
and sizes of, 129, 130; few built, 
after the advent of the Europeans, 
13t>-132; age of, 131-135 ; on the 
Etowah Eiver, 136-143 ; in the 
valley of Little Shoulder-bone 
Creek, 143-147 ; on the Savannah 
Eiver below Augusta, 153-157 ; 
on the Ocmulgee Eiver, opposite 
the city of Macon, 158-161 ; on 
Lamar's plantation, 162; on 
Brown's Mount, 165; onMessier's 
plantation, 166-174; on Wool- 
folk's plantation, 182; sepulchral, 
183; chieftain, 183; family or 
tribal, 189; on the low grounds 
of the Eivanna, 193; of shell, 
195-200 ; of stone, 202 ; on Stal- 
ling's Island, 197 ; in Nacoochee 
Valley, 213; at the confluence 



of the Etowah and Oostenaula 
Eivers, 253. 
Tuscaroras, the, 7. 
! Tydeus, 120. 
Tylor, Mr., 414. 

U. 

lichees, the, 2, 3. 
Undertakers, 112, 191, 223. 
L'ppowoc, 396. 



Vaca, Cabeca de, 229, 245, 362. 

Venegas, Miguel, 363. 

Venetian beads, 235. 

Victory-stones, 285. 

Virginia kings, how entombed, 108. 

TV 

Walled towns, 209-212. 

Walnut-oil, 45, 315, 316. 

Wampum, 501-511. 

War, how declared, 16, 18; conduct 
of the Southern Indians in, 17, 18. 

War-chief, the great, dignity and 
power of, 11, 16; represents thi 
Mico in his absence, 16. 

Warriors, cabin of the, 16 ; charac- 
teristics of the Southern, 19. 
I Wears, 330-332. 
i Weaving, 78, 87. 

Wedge-shaped axes, 278-2 SI. 

Westoes, the, 2. 

Whetstones, 277, 367. 

Whittlesev, Colonel Charles, 319, 
331. 

Widows, the care of, 13. 
Williams, Eoger, 507. 
Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 384. 
Winter houses, 35. 
Wislizenus, Dr. A., 21 S. 
Woman -chief, among the jSTatchez. 
23. 

Woman, position of; 70. 
Wrightsboro, ancient monuments 

near, 123. 
Wyman, Prof. Jeffries, 200. 

Y. 

Yamasees, the, 2, 3. 
Year, divisions of the, 100. 



I 



